li 


NURSERY   SCHOOL   EDUCATION 


NURSERY    SCHOOL 
EDUCATION 

BniTED    PY 

GRACE  OWEN,  B.Sc. 

PRINCIPAL    OK    THE    MATHER    TRAINING    COLLEGE,    MANCHKSTHR 


1     4  '',  >  *  ^/     '  WITH    -tlciHt  I'LlbSTilATltWfe^         !, 


S     J  »»     3      > 


NEW     YORK 

E.  P.  DUTTON  AND  COMPANY 
PUBLISHERS 


ym'  O   xi, 


DEDICATED   TO   THE   MEMORY   OF 

MARY  ADELAIDE   WRAGGE 

PRINCIPAL  OF  THE   BLACKHEATH  KINDERGARTEN  TRAINING 

COLLEGE  AND    FROEBELIAN    SCHOOL,    189I-I906 


)  PREFATORY    NOTE 

^  I  ^HE  reader  will  recognize  that  in  the  following  pages 
^  •*■  the  authors  have  approached  the  subject  of  Nursery 
Schools  each  from  a  special  standpoint — whether  it  be 
'  that  of  the  student  of  psychology,  of  education,  or  of 
the  laws  of  health.  Although  there  has  been  collaboration 
)  between  the  different  authors,  each  is  responsible  for 
}  her  own  section  only. 

J      I  desire  to  express  my  grateful  acknowledgments  to 
I  friends  who  have  kindly  contributed  valuable  advice  and 
"j  criticism,  and  especially  to  Miss  E.  M.  Wragge  and  Miss 
"*£.  S.  Newman,  who  have  generously  devoted  much  time 
and  care  to  a  revision  of  the  manuscript.     I  am  also 
indebted  to  Mr,  George  Widdows,  F.R.I.B.A.,  for  prepar- 
ing a  plan  for  a  group  of  Nursery  Schools,  and  to  Miss 
Edith   Hodsman   for   furnishing   me  with  details  of  the 
equipment  of  the  Darlington  Training   College   Nursery 
School. 

GRACE  OWEN 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Introduction    ..  ..  ..  ..  ..       ii 

Part    I.   The  Aims  and  Functions  of  the  Nursery 

School  . .  . .  . .  . .       19 

by  the  editor 

Part  II.   The  Mind  of  the  Child  . .  . .       27 

BY   OLIVE   A.    WHEELER,   D.SC. 
Lecturer  in  Education,  Manchester  University. 

CHAPTER      I.      THE  INNATE  BASES  OF  CHARACTER 
II.      THE  ACQUIRED  BASES  OF  CHARACTER 
III.      THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 

Part  III.  The  Education  of  the  Nursery  School 

Child  . .  . .  . .  •  ■       55 

by  margaret  e.  eggar 

Lecturer  in  Edocatlon,  Manchester  University  ;  and 

GRACE   OWEN,    B.SC. 

Principal  of  the  Mather  Training  College,  Manchester 

CHAPTER    I.      THE   ENVIRONMENT 

II.     THE  child's  RESPONSE— (rt)  Exercise  and  Imitation 
III.     THE  child's  response — {^)  Creative  Expression 

Part  IV.    The  Hygiene  of  the  Nursery  School         95 

BY   CATHERINE   CHISHOLM,    B.A. ,    M.D. 
Hon.  Physician  to  the  Manchester  B.abies'  Hospital 

CHAPTER    I.  THE  CHILD   AND   HIS  DEVELOPMENT 

II.  THE  SURROUNDINGS  OF    THE    CHILD 

III.  CONSIDERATIONS  AFFECTING  DAILY  ROUTINE 

IV.  MEDICAL   SUPERVISION 
V.  INFECTIOUS   DISEASE 

VI.      MINOR  ACCIDENTS 
VII.      THE  TRAINING  OF  THE  STAFF  IN  HYGIENE 


10  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Part   V.  The  Staff  of  the  Nursery  School  and    '"^"^ 
THE  Training  of  Superintendents         . .      133 

BY  THE  EDITOR 

Part  VI.   Notes  on  Buildings  and  Equipment  139 

by  the  editor 

Appendix.    The  Board  of  Education's  Regulations 

for  Nursery  Schools  ..  ..      152 

Index  ..  ..  ..  ..  ..175 


LIST     OF     ILLUSTRATIONS 

PLATE 

1.  A  Group  of  Ardwick  Nursery  School  Children 

From  a  photograph  by  S.  Epstein  Frontisfiece 

PACING   PAGE 

2.  The  Montes.sori  Apparatus,  Ardwick  Nursery  School     68 

From  a  photograph  by  E.  }Vard 

3.  Play  with  Toys,  Ardwick  Nursery  School  . .  . .       78 

From  a  photograph  by  E.  Ward 

4.  In  thk  Sandpit,  the  Rusholme  Nursery       ..  ..      84. 

From  a  photograph  by  E.  Ward 

5.  Dinner-time,  the  Rushoi.mh  Nursery  . .  . .     106 

From  a  photograph  by  J.  Porter 

6.  Cottages  Adapted,  Ardwick  Nursery   School  . .     142 

From  a  photograph  by  E.  Ward 

7.  The  North   Wingkield   Infants'  School,   South   Side     144 

Architect— George  H.  Widdows,  F.R.I.B.A. 

8.  The  North   Wingfiei.d  Infants'  School,   North  Side     146 

Architect— Giorgt  11.  Widdows,  F.R.I.B.A. 

Plan  for  a  Group  of  Nursery  Schools  Front  cover 

By  George  H.  Widdo'MS,  F.R.I.B.A. 


i 


INTRODUCTION 

By  the  Editor 

THE  decision  to  make  the  Nursery  School  the 
foundation  of  England's  system  of  education 
is  one  of  far-reaching  importance ;  and  influences, 
flowing  from  different  sources,  have  now  combined  to 
bring  about  a  practical  venture  on  a  national  scale. 

The  Nursery  School  movement  has  derived  its  main 
impetus  from  a  determination  to  provide  healthy  conditions 
and  skilled  physical  care  for  the  childhood  of  the  nation 
from  infancy  onwards.  It  also  promises  the  opportunity 
of  breaking  away  from  the  conventional  methods  of 
teaching  young  children,  in  favour  of  an  education  in 
harmony  with  our  modern  knowledge  of  psychology. 

Both  these  influences  have  been  at  work,  and  the 
Nursery  School  of  the  future  will,  it  is  hoped,  fulfil  in 
itself  both  these  aspirations.  Through  this  new  institution 
we  may  make  practical  recognition  of  the  fact  that 
questions  of  physical  and  mental  well-being  are  indissolubly 
connected.  It  is  impossible  to  hope  for  normal  mental 
development  while  the  body  is  ill-nourished  and  badly 
cared  for.  It  is  equally  futile  to  look  for  development  of 
the  whole  nature  while  attending  only  to  physical  needs. 

The  Infant  School  movement  in  this  countiy  arose 
under  the  inspiration  of  Robert  Owen,  whose  faith  in  the 
influence  of  a  favourable  environment  in  early  childhood 
was  unbounded.  In  his  famous  infant  school  at  New 
Lanark,  begun  in  1816,  he  realized  much  of  his  hope. 
The  possibihties  of  improved  development  resulting  from 
healthy,  happy  conditions  and  free  activity  were  abun-  , 
dantly  proved.  Unfortunately,  his  followers  in  England"^ 
soon  forgot  his  larger  aims  and  methods ;  and,  indeed, 
laid  a  deplorable  emphasis  on  definite  instruction  given 

II 


12  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

to  rows  of  children  seated  in  galleries,  kept  in  order  by  a 
strict,  even  if  kindly,  discipline. 

Since  1852  the  educational  ideas  embodied  in  the 
Kindergarten  by  Friedrich  Froebel  have  been  slowly 
permeating  our  Infant  School  system,  and  a  change 
towards  greater  freedom  of  activity  and  the  use  of  play- 
occupations  for  little  children  has  taken  place  ;  but 
crowded  classes,  and  many  unhygienic  conditions,  have 
generally  prevailed  even  to  the  present  time. 

Through  philanthropic  effort,  however,  Free  Kindergar- 
tens for  children  living  in  crowded  slums  have  sprung  up 
in  the  large  cities  of  Great  Britain.  The  first  was  founded 
in  1900.  Working  apart  from  infant  schools,  they  have 
gathered  together  children  from  three  to  five  or  six  years 
of  age,  in  groups  of  thirty  or  forty  ;  they  have  sought  to 
provide  for  them  the  best  possible  environment  for  healthy 
development,  and  to  educate  through  play  and  contact 
with  nature.  They  have  postponed  instruction  and 
looked  only  for  all-round  development  of  mmd  and  body 
in  an  atmosphere  of  happy  companionship.  They  have 
stood  also  for  close  co-operation  with  the  home,  and  have 
always  identified  themselves  with  neighbourhood  life. 
Thus,  though  small  in  numbers,  they  have  served  as 
practical  educational  demonstrations  for  the  Nursery 
School  movement,  and  have  been  the  immediate  pioneers 
of  the  Nursery  School. 

The  establishment  of  Nursery  Schools  was  definitely 
recommended  by  the  Consultative  Committee  of  the  Board 
of  Education  in  its  Report,  pubhshed  in  1908,  on  tlie 
"School  Attendance  of  Children  below  the  Age  of  Five." 

The  evidence  brought  before  the  Committee  showed 
clearly  enough  : 

(i)  That  the  infant  schools  of  the  time  were  unsuitable 
for  very  young  children,  both  as  regards  hygienic  con- 
ditions and  mental  occupation. 

(2)  That,  nevertheless,  lai"ge  numbers  of  children  would 
be  left  all  day  uncared  for,  or  unsuitably  "minded,"  if 
they  were  not  allowed  to  come  to  school  before  the  ag( 
of  five. 


INTRODUCTION  13 

The  success  of  the  Ecoles  Maternelles  in  France,  and 
of  similar  institutions  in  other  countries,  as  well  as  of  our 
own  Free  Kindergartens,  indicated  better  lines  of  develop- 
ment. Accordingly,  the  committee  reached  the  conclusion 
that  it  was  urgently  desirable  that  the  State  should  con- 
tinue to  make  provision  for  children  under  five  where  it 
was  required,  but  that  this  provision  must  be  of  an 
improved  kind — designed  to  secure  health,  freedom  from 
nervous  strain,  and  happy  occupation  for  all  children  whose  ^ 
needs  could  not  be  met  at  home. 

Since  1908  the  need  for  Nursery  Schools  has  been  ^ 
increasingly  felt,  and  has  been  forcibly  emphasized  by  the 
war.  The  institution  of  medical  inspection  of  school 
children  in  1907  has  served  to  make  evident  the  urgent 
need  of  continuous  medical  supervision  during  the  years  y 
preceding  school  life.  Medical  opinion  is  unanimous  in 
urging  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  physical  defect  noted 
in  children  entering  school  at  five  years  of  age  could  and 
would  have  been  prevented  if  medical  supervision  had  been 
available  during  the  first  five  years  of  life.  The  increase 
of  schools  for  mothers  and  infant  clinics,  diuring  recent 
years,  has  brought  about  a  decrease  in  the  rate  of  mortality 
and  the  prevalence  of  disease  during  the  first  year  of  life  ; 
and  much  helpful  advice  as  to  the  necessary  conditions 
of  a  healthy  childhood  is  now  available  for  the  mother 
who  is  willing  to  take  advantage  of  it.  Nevertheless  there 
is  a  gap  between  babyhood  and  school-life  during  which 
no  regular  medical  supervision  is  universally  available, 
and  this  entails  a  serious  break  in  the  record  kept  of  the 
individual  child.  When  it  is  considered  that  the  rate  of 
mortality  during  these  years  is  higher  than  that  of  any- 
period  except  the  first  year,  it  is  obvious  that  continued 
neglect  by  the  State  would  be  fatal  to  the  whole  national 
effort  to  raise  the  physique  of  the  people.  The  Nursery 
School,  open  to  all  children  over  the  3ge  of  two,  will  bridge 
this  gap.  By  means  of  it,  regular  supervision,  the  prompt 
treatment  of  ailment  and  disease,  the  necessary  attention 
to  right  food,  clothing,  personal  habits,  and  healthy 
surroundings,  are  al!  made  possible. 


14  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

It  is  hard  to  see  how  these  results  can  be  attained 
without  the  help  of  some  such  institution,  carried  on  in 
close  co-operation  with  the  home.  The  Nursery  School 
superintendent  derives  influence  with  parents  from  their 
knowledge  of  the  skilled  care  she  is  giving  to  their  children 
every  day  ;  the  improvement  the  parents  can  see  wins 
their  appreciation  and  co-operation.  The  conditions  also 
of  space,  fresh  air,  and  scrupulous  cleanliness,  which 
are  of  first  importance  for  young  children,  are  difficult 
to  secure  in  many  homes,  but  are  provided  in  the 
Nursery  School.  It  would  indeed  be  disastrous  to  use  the 
Nursery  Schools  as  an  excuse  for  putting  off  housing  reform, 
but  neither  can  we  afford  to  wait  for  them  until  the  housing 
problem  is  solved.  Rather  should  the  Nursery  School  be 
included  in  every  housing  scheme,  and  meanwhile  lead  the 
way,  by  securing  for  groups  of  children  the  healthy  condi- 
tions of  life  which  are  the  right  of  every  home. 

The  Education  Act  of  1918  makes  possible  the  estabhsh- 
ment  of  Nursery  Schools  throughout  the  country.  Clause 
19  runs  thus  : 

"  (i)  The  powers  of  Local  Education  Authorities  for 
the  purposes  of  Part  III.  of  the  Education  Act,  1902, 
shall  include  power  to  make  arrangements  for  : 

"  {a)  Supplying  or  aiding  the  supply  of  Nursery  Schools 
(which  expression  shall  include  nursery  classes)  for 
children  over  two  and  under  five  years  of-  age,  or  such 
later  age  as  may  be  approved  by  the  Board  of  Education, 
whose  attendance  at  such  a  school  is  necessary  or  desirable 
for  their  healthy  physical  and  mental  development ;   and 

"  (6)  Attending  to  the  health,  nourishment,  and 
physical  welfare  of  children  attending  Nursery  Schools. 

"  (2)  Notwithstanding  the  provisions  of  any  Act  of 
Parliament,  the  Board  of  Education  may,  out  of  moneys 
provided  by  Parliament,  pay  grants  in  aid  of  Nursery 
Schools,  provided  that  such  grants  shall  not  be  paid  in 
respect  of  any  such  school  unless  it  is  open  to  inspection 
by  the  local  education  authority,  and  unless  that  authority 
are  enabled  to  appoint  representatives  on  the  body  of 


INTRODUCTION  15 

managers  to  the  extent  of  at  least  one-third  of  the  total 
number  of  managers,  and  before  recognizing  any  Nursery 
School  the  Board  shall  consult  the  local  education 
authority." 

By  inserting  this  clause  in  the  Act,  the  country  as  a 
whole  has  shown  itself  convinced  of  the  importance  of 
taking  determined  steps  to  look  to  the  very  foundations 
of  the  health  and  well-being  of  the  people.  It  has  per- 
ceived that  all  schemes  of  national  reconstruction,  of 
whatever  type,  are  based  on  shifting  sand  if  the  young 
life  of  the  nation  is  not  sound,  healthy,  and  well-developed 
during  the  first  critical  years.  As  one  effective  means  of 
building  surely  for  the  future,  it  has  given  power  to  every 
local  authority  to  provide  for  itself  Nursery  Schools  in  all 
districts  where  it  would  be  advisable  to  have  them.  The 
Act  does  not  compel  their  establishment,  nor  force  the 
attendance  of  any  child  ;  but  it  gives  a  great  opportunity. 

Given  its  full  scope,  the  clause  must  have  far-reaching 
results.  It  cannot  be  doubted  that  the  expenditure  of 
faith  and  energy  and  money  involved  will  bring  great 
returns.  The  Nursery  School  will  be  a  powerful  factor 
in  lowering  the  rate  of  mortality  in  young  children,  in 
eliminating  the  many  physical  defects  that  so  often  dog 
the  career  through  life,  and  in  bringing  to  all  the  benefits 
of  improved  health  as  well  as  the  development  of  good 
habits,  self-reliance,  and  individuality.  ^ 

It  may  also  serve  the  wider  cause  of  education.  It  is  not 
hampered  by  the  traditions  of  a  past  generation.  It  is  free 
to  work  out  its  own  salvation.  It  has  a  new  opportunity. 
If  those  who  are  responsible  preserve  simplicity  of  spirit  and 
an  open  mind,  it  may  make  an  important  contribution  to 
our  knowledge  of  education,  because  it  will  be  a  testing- 
ground  of  the  fundamental  educational  doctrines  of  to-day. 

Moreover,  by  its  insistence  on  co-operation  with  the 
home,  its  interest  in  neighbourhood  activities,  and  its 
constant  function  of  putting  the  individual  family  in  touch 
with'  the  various  agencies  for  child  welfare,  it  will  tend  to 
strengthen  the  movement  towards  bringing  all  education 


16  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

into  closer  touch  with  real  life.  A  Nursery  School  superin- 
tendent said  recently  :  "  I  do  not  know  whether  my  work 
begins  or  ends  when  my  children  go  home."  This  attitude 
is  characteristic,  and  must  some  day  find  its  way  into  the 
schools  for  older  children. 

We  shall  need  Nursery  Schools  of  various  types.  Not 
only  in  crowded  cities,  but  in  country  villages,  there  is 
need  of  just  such  an  agency  to  spread  knowledge  of  the 
essential  conditions  of  a  healthy  childhood  ;  while  the 
value  of  the  work  of  special  schools  for  the  deaf,  the  blind, 
and  delicate  children  would  be  enormously  strengthened 
if  Nuisery  Schools  could  be  established  in  connexion 
with  them. 

The  fact  that  the  establishment  of  such  schools  is  not 
compulsory  on  the  education  authority  calls  for  a  deter- 
mined weight  of  public  opinion  in  their  favour.  It  is  of 
urgent  importance  that  the  inauguration  of  continuation 
schools  shall  not  be  allowed  to  delay  the  establishment  of 
the  first  Nursery  Schools.  Such  a  policy  would  be  un- 
sound, for  the  complete  success  of  continued  education 
will  depend  upon  the  sound  foundations  laid  in  early  life. ' 

There  are  obstacles  to  overcome.  The  difficulty  of 
expense  is  a  great  one,  for  the  proposal  involves  the  care 
of  many  thousands  of  children  hitherto  unprovided  for  by 
the  State.  The  right  conditions  and  equipment,  though 
of  the  simplest  character,  will  bring  an  increase  of  the 
expenditure  per  head  so  far  considered  sufiicient  for  young 
children.  The  staffing  will  need  the  utmost  care,  since 
inefficiency  would  bring  about  the  failure  of  the  movement. 

In  the  face  of  these  difficulties,  the  effectiveness  of  the 
clause  permitting  the  establislmient  of  Nursery  Schools  will 
depend  upon  recognition  by  the  public  of  the  urgency  of 
the  need,  and  the  clearness  of  its  perception  that  now  is 
the  time  to  tlirow  aside  half-measures,  and  spend  un- 
grudgingly in  an  unsparing  effort  to  put  the  feet  of  the 
children  of  the  coming  generations  firmly  on  life's  path. 
May  public  opinion  not  be  found  wanting  ! 

In  many  towns  education  authorities  are  establishing 
nursery  classes  within  infant  schools.     The  nuisery  clasi 


INTRODUCTION  17 

is  a  compromise  between  the  babies'  class  of  the  infant 
school  and  the  Nursery  School.  Children  between  two 
and  five  years  of  age  may  be  admitted.  A  classroom  with 
sunny  aspect  is  selected,  toys  are  provided,  time-tables  are 
abolished,  and  a  sleeping  hour  instituted.  There  is  varying 
success  in  the  attempt  to  provide  a  separate  playground, 
special  lavatory  accommodation,  and  a  high  standard  of 
cleanliness.  The  teacher  may  or  may  not  be  specially 
trained. 

All  efforts  to  improve  the  conditions  and  management 
of  babies'  classes  are  to  be  welcomed,  and  in  favourable 
circumstances  nursery  classes  may  help  to  spread  quickly 
«ome  of  the  benefits  of  a  Nursery  School.  It  must  be 
recognized,  however,  that  in  the  majority  of  cases  the 
necessary  changes  of  organization  and  equipment  are 
exceedingly  difficult  to  carry  out  in  a  corner  of  the  premises 
of  an  ordinary  infant  school,  and  that  there  is  real  danger 
in  the  too  easy  acceptance  of  a  compromise.  The  bringing 
together  of  groups  of  children  of  the  age  of  two  years  and 
upwards  will  serve  to  increase  rather  than  diminish  the 
risks  of  ailment  and  disease,  unless  strict  attention  is  given 
invariably  to  the  adequate  provision  of  skilled  care  and 
hygienic  conditions.  It  would  indeed  be  a  grievous  thing 
if  the  policy  of  establishing  nursery  classes  instead  of 
Nursery  Schools  were  followed  in  such  a  way  as  to  result 
in  a  gradual  weakening  of  the  original  purpose  expressed 
in  the  clause  of  the  Act  permitting  their  establishment, 
and  a  failure  to  achieve  anything  really  fundamental  by 
means  of  it. 

To  avert  this  danger,  it  is  urgent  that  every  Local 
Authority  should  provide  immediately  for  a  few  well- 
equipped  and  adequately  staffed  Nursery  Schools  within 
its  area,  in  districts  where  the  need  is  obvious.  If  this 
were  done  during  the  present  year,  public  opinion  would 
by  this  means  become  very  much  better  informed  than  it 
now  is  as  to  the  meaning  and  possibilities  of  the  movement. 
There  would  be  a  real  demand  for  more,  and  we  should 
be  prepared  to  launch  a  larger  policy. 

Then,  with  the  inclusion  of  children  up  to  six  years  of 


18  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

age,  and  a  steady  increase  in  the  number  of  specially- 
trained  superintendents  and  assistants  available,  the 
Nursery  School  movement  should  resolve  itself  naturally 
into  the  transformation  of  the  infant  school.  The  usual 
infant  school  period  would  in  this  case  be  slightly  shifted. 
Children  from  two  years  of  age  might  be  admitted  as 
seemed  desirable,  and  those  above  nursery  school  age 
would  be  included  in  junior  schools.  Instead  of  the  big 
classes  of  children  as  near  of  an  age  as  possible,  we  should 
have  smaller  groups  of  children  of  varying  ages,  each  group 
so  far  resembling  a  large  family.  Considerable  changes 
in  organization  and  equipment  would  be  necessary,  and 
many  new  buildings  would  be  required.  In  view  of  the 
extension  of  the  period  of  education  below  three  and  above 
thirteen  years  of  age  however,  an  ampler  accommodation 
for  children  in  schools  must  in  any  case  be  made.  Some 
of  this  should  take  the  form  of  new  Nursery  Schools  care- 
fully planned  for  their  purpose.  In  some  cases  it  may 
be  possible,  with  the  addition  of  open-air  shelters,  to 
adapt  the  whole  infant  school  building  and  playground 
to  meet  the  essential  requirements  of  Nursery  Schools. 

Whether  the  end  is  to  be  achieved  by  this  or  by  some 
other  road,  there  is  need  for  the  adoption  of  a  wisely 
generous  and  far-reaching  policy,  which  shall  secure 
the  fulfilment  of  the  utmost  possibilities  of  the  Nursery 
School  as  the  foundation  of  the  national  system  of 
education. 


PART    I 

THE   AIMS  AND  FUNCTIONS   OF   THE  NURSERY 
SCHOOL 

By  the  Editor 

THERE  is  a  common  notion  that  the  Nmsery  School 
is  primarily  a  substitute  for  home.  We  feel 
at  once  that  this  idea  is  not  sound  when  we 
consider  the  education  of  the  child  of  Nui'sery  School  age 
in  its  broader  and  deeper  aspects.  The  nourishment  of 
mind  and  feeling  as  well  as  of  body  is  naturally  supplied 
by  the  mother  during  the  first  years  of  childhood.  Whether 
she  be  inadequate  or  not,  no  one  can  take  her  place,  for 
the  intimacy  between  mother  and  child  is  perfect.  Should 
the  fullness  of  this  first  relationship  fail,  the  child  must  be 
for  ever  poorer.  Therefore,  if  the  Nursery  School  is  merely 
a  substitute  for  home,  it  is  at  best  a  lame  thing. 

It  is  built  upon  a  firmer  foundation  when  it  is  conceived 
as  an  extension  of  home-life ;  when  it  preserves  its  true 
organic  connexion  with  the  home ;  when  it  understands 
the  special  part  it  has  to  play  in  the  child's  life,  and  ful- 
fils that  part  in  close  relationship  with  other  agencies  for 
the  child's  welfare. 

Undoubtedly  it  has  its  part  to  play.  The  Nursery 
School  can  help  both  parent  and  child.  In  it  the  children 
find  certain  conditions  which  are  helpful  to  them,  con- 
ditions which  are  not  so  fully  provided  for  at  home. 
For  instance,  the  environment  of  the  nursery  is  planned 
for  children  onl3^  whereas  at  home  the  arrangements  for 
grovm-up  people  must  preponderate  largely  over  those 
for  children.     In  the  Nursery  School,  the  small  fiu^niture, 

19 


20  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

the  choice  of  pictures  and  objects  of  interest,  the  arrange- 
ment of  these  so  that  everything  is  within  reach,  above 
all   the  understanding   that   everything  is  meant  to   be 

^  handled  and  used  freely  by  children,  give  an  environment 

'^nvhich  the  little  child  can  master  and  feel  to  be  his  own.  An 
important  point  also  is  the  fact  that  in  the  Nursery  School 
it  is  not  one  room  only  in  which  this  may  be  felt,  but  in 
a  little  series  of  rooms,  including  playrooms,  cloakroom, 
and  bathroom.  Thus  the  nursery  is  able  to  give  the 
children  a  wider  field  for  the  full  exercise  of  their  powers 

^than  is  usually  possible  at  home. 

f*  Again,  the  children  find  here  grown-up  friends  who  have 
plenty  of  time  to  play  with  them,  answer  their  questions, 
and  wait  for  them  while  they  slowly  learn  to  perform  all 
the  little  duties  of  their  daily  lives.  This  is  hardly  possible 
in  most  homes.  The  intelligent  child  has  more  bodily  and 
mental  activity  between  the  ages  of  two  and  six  than  can 
be  easily  satisfied  by  the  very  busy  people  with  whom  he 
lives,  most  of  whom  do  not  understand  that  what  he  does, 
or  wants  to  know,  is  at  all  important. 

The  trained  and  experienced  Nursery  School  superin- 
tendent has  opportunity  to  provide  for  the  needs  of  the 
children,  whether  it  be  for  physical  and  mental  activity 
or  for  a  careful  training  in  good  habits. 
f)  Once  more,  the  little  child  in  the  Nursery  School  finds 
himself  amongst  a  number  of  children  of  varying  ages, 
some  of  whom  are  of  the  same  age  as  himself.  This  is  a 
new  and  valuable  experience. 

Games  are  the  more  delightful,  and  the  daily  habits 
that  have  to  be  learned,  such  as  washing  one's  own  hands 
and  lacing  one's  boots,  are  not  nearly  so  difficult  and  irk- 
some when  others  are  sharing  the  experience.  It  is  often 
found,  indeed,  that  much  that  is  a  real  trial  when  done  at 
home  is  accomplished  with  enthusiasm  when  it  is  part  of 
the  Nursery  School  routine.  This  companionship,  never- 
theless, entails  individual  self -discipline.  At'»the  same 
time  that  he  finds  so  many  things  to  enjoy,  such  freedom 
to  do  what  he  wants  when  he  wants,  the  child  runs  up 
against  the  necessity  for  self-subordination  in  community 


AIMS  AND  FUNCTIONS  OF  NURSERY  SCHOOL  21 

life.  Thus  the  growing  instinct  of  self-assertion — healthy 
in  itself — is  kept  in  due  check  by  the  absorbing  interest 
of  living  with  other  children,  and  the  necessity  for  the 
spirit  of  give-and-take  which  it  involves. 

These  conditions  give  the  Nursery  School  its  opportunity 
— as  distinct  from  the  home.  Nevertheless,  the  function 
of  the  superintendent  is  to  work  side  by  side  with  the  home, 
continuously  in  touch  with  the  parents  and  the  home-life 
of  each  child,  letting  her  knowledge  of  these  guide  her  in 
her  work  and  play  with  the  children  during  Nursery  School 
hours.  She  will  also  seek  to  bring  about  in  each  home  a 
corresponding  familiarity  with  the  Nursery  School,  by 
throwing  it  open  to  the  parents  and  welcoming  their 
co-operation.  She  will  seek  unity  of  purpose  and  of 
principle  with  them  in  dealing  with  their  children.  Where 
this  is  achieved,  the  influence  of  the  Nursery  School  can-i; 
scarcely  fail  to  be  deep  and  abiding.  ^ 

One  fundamental  condition  of  true  success  must  be 
emphasized  from  the  ,beginning.  The  numbers  of  children 
that  can  safely  anjd  profitably  be  gathered  together  in  a 
single  Nursery  Scpool  is  strictly  limited  by  the  need  for 
individual  care  and  an  intimate  personal  relationship 
between  the  children  and  the  mother  of  the  group.  More- 
over, it  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  harmful  for  a  very 
young  child,  coming  from  a.  little  family  circle,  to  be 
introduced  suddenly  to  a  bewildering  mass  of  children  \1. 
too  large  for  him  to  feel  as  a  community.  Only  when  the  ** 
number  of  children  is  small  also  will  it  be  possible  to  group 
children  of  varying  ages  together,  thus  reflecting  the 
indispensable  condition  of  family  life,  which  secures  that 
they  learn  from  and  help  one  another  in  ways  that  no  grown- 
up person  can  rival.  To  make  sure  of  this  fundamental  ]|*; 
condition  is  perhaps  the  most  important  practical  problem  ^ 
before  those  responsible  for  the  founding  of  Nursery 
Schools  over  a  wide  area.  It  will,  undoubtedly,  be 
necessary  to  face  the  fact  that  the  conditions  at  present 
considered  suitable  for  babies'  classes  arc  in  fact  unsuitable, 
and  must  not  be  repeated  in  our  Nursery  Schools  ;  that 
space,  staffing,  and  equipment  must  be  more  generously 


22  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

provided  for.  On  the  other  hand,  ways  may  be  found  of 
grouping  a  number  of  Nursery  Schools,  each  containing 
thirty  to  forty  children  between  two  and  five  or  six  years 
of  age,  so  that  there  is  some  economy  in  the  organization 
of  the  whole,  while  each  is  carried  on  under  separate 
management  and  with  its  own  rooms  and  equipment  and 
open  space  unshared. 

In  what  ways  should  the  Nursery  School  endeavour  to 
fulfil  its  special  responsibility  ? 

In  the  first  place,  it  must  prepare  and  maintain  the 
right  conditions  for  free  and  healthy  physical  develop- 
ment. A  life  in  the  open  air,  space  to  run  about,  rooms 
having  a  sunny  aspect,  and  suitable  arrangements  for 
rest  and  sleep — these  are  conditions  of  first  importance. 
It  must  secure  when  necessary,  whether  directly  or  by 
persuasion  of  the  parents,  that  every  child  is  adequately 
fed,  hygienically  clothed,  and  scrupulously  clean.  It 
must  train  the  children  in  all  desirable  habits,  especially 
taking  time  to  teach  them  how  to  look  after  themselves 
as  regards  washing,  dressing,  and  other  personal  matters. 
It  must  maintain  an  increasing  watch  over  all  symptoms 
of  ailment  and  disease,  and  cope  vigorously  with  any 
physical  troubles  from  which  the  children  may  be  suffering 
when  they  enter  the  nursery.  Training  also  in  right 
habits  of  speech  and  freedom  of  movement  must  not  be 
forgotten. 

Secondly,  the  Nursery  School  must  provide  an  environ- 
ment in  which  the  child  shall  find  food  for  his  growing 
mind.  It  is  not  enough  to  meet  the  needs  of  his  physical 
nature  alone,  and  to  leave  his  active  mind  without  atten- 
tion. The  years  between  two  and  six  are  years  during 
which  the  child  is  gathering  ideas  from  his  surroundings 
with  amazing  rapidity — the  memories  of  this  period  arc 
generally  tenacious — his  mind  is  constantly  occupied  with 
things  present  to  the  senses,  and  he  receives  multitudes 
of  vivid  impressions,  the  material  for  later  thinking. 
Therefore  it  is  important  that  he  should  be  surrounded 
by  an  environment,  both  physical  and  intellectual,  which 
shall  bring  to  him  a  rich  variety  of  ideas  of  a  desirabk 


AIMS  AND  FUNCTIONS  OF  NURSERY  SCHOOL  23 

kind.  This  is  particularly  important  when  the  Nursery 
School  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  large  city — perhaps  in 
a  slum  area.  In  such  districts  there  is  frequently  a  distress- 
ing lack  of  the  right  material  for  the  child's  mind  to  use. 
Narrow  streets  and  hard  pavements,  ill-built  houses 
and  drab  and  meagre  home  conditions,  furnish  poor 
material  for  satisfjdng  his  alert  and  eager  senses.  A  most 
important  aspect  of  Nursery  School  work  is  to  meet  the 
child's  need  here. 

We  must  recognize,  for  example,  that  every  child  needs 
contact  with  living  and  growing  things.  It  should,  there->f. 
fore,  be  considered  essential  that  the  Nursery  School 
possess  a  garden — not  merely  because  it  means  the  possi- 
bility of  being  out  of  doors,  but  because  it  is  for  the  child 
an  infinite  source  of  ideas  of  life,  growth,  form,  and  colour, 
and  because  it  calls  out  his  early  sympathies  and  appeals 
irresistibly  to  his  whole  nature.  We  are  sure  also  that 
when  free  amongst  flowers  and  grass  and  under  the  sky, 
even  though  it  be  too  often  a  grey  sky,  the  child  is  subject 
to  far-reaching  influences  that  we  cannot  gauge,  but 
which  we  believe  will  enrich  his  personality  for  life. 

Not  only  in  the  garden,  but  within  the  rooms  of  the 
Nursery  School,  the  chUd  should  find  many  things  of 
interest  and  beauty  to  love  and  appreciate  ;  things,  too, 
round  which  his  imagination  will  readily  play  and  find 
satisfaction.  As  he  grows  and  develops,  his  intelligence 
will  also  be  quickened  by  stories  and  conversation,  and 
these  must  be  recognized  as  an  important  feature  of  his 
mental  environment.  Simple  and  beautiful  music  will 
afford  him  another  store  of  impressions  which  will  some 
day  bear  fruit. 

In  these  and  other  ways  the  Nursery  School  is  called 
upon  to  enlarge  the  experience  of  the  children  to  whom 
it  belongs,  and  to  put  them  in  touch  with  ample  material 
for  the  growth  of  thought  and  feeling. 

Again,  the  opportunity  to  obey  creative  impulses  that 
are  strong  even  in  early  life  is  of  no  less  importance.  A 
child's  ideas  demand  almost  immediate  expression  in  talk, 
in  games,  and  through  materials  of  different  kinds.     If 


24  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

allowed,  he  is  constantly  occupied  in  all  these  three  ways, 
and  no  aspect  of  his  development  is  second  in  importance 
to  this.     The  fostering  of  the  creative  impulses  means  the 

s^  fostering  of  life  itself,  and  it  is  "  more  life  and  fuller" 
^  that  is  the  need  of  every  child. 

It  is  the  great  responsibility  and  privilege  of  the  Nursery 
School  to  provide  him  with  the  means  and  opportunity 
to  express  fully  his  own  ideas  and  feelings,  to  help  him  to 
acquire  more  skill  as  he  feels  the  need  of  it,  and  to  supply 
an  atmosphere  of  love  and  sympathy,  which  will  help  the 
first  weak  impulses  to  gi-ow  strong  and  purposeful. 

9  Lastly,  the  Nursery  School  has  much  to  do  with  the 
^development  of  social  relationships.  The  child  is  at  the 
beginning  of  his  social  education,  and  this  comes  naturally 
tlirough  the  daily  happenings  of  his  life.  He  is  not  yet 
capable  of  altruism  ;  he  does  not  yet  understand  the 
demands  upon  the  individual  of  a  life  of  fellowship,  but 
his  joy  in  activity  can  be  guided  into  right  channels. 
Generous  impulses  can  be  encouraged  and  habits  of  con- 
siderate action  formed  during  this  period,  and  these  will 
surely  have  their  effective  influence  on  that  future  day 
when  the  real  fight  with  selfish  impulses  must  take  place. 
Above  all,  daily  contact  with  sincere  and  loving  personali- 
ties brings  to  the  child  a  real,  if  dim,  perception  of  what  is 
ideal  in  character  and  life. 

"The  new  Nursery  School  movement  is  largely  a  health 
movement,  and  in  all  good  Nursery  Schools  close  attention 
is  rightly  given  throughout  the  day  to  matters  of  hygiene. 
Nevertheless,  our  concern  for  hygiene  must  not  be  allowed 
to  overshadow  the  children.  We  do  not  want  to  bring 
about  a  spirit  of  stolid  seriousness  in  Nursery  School  life. 
On  the  contrary,  a  real  spirit  of  play  should  pervade  the 
whole.  Careless  gaiety  and  bubbling  fun  are  true  evidences 
of  the  untrammelled  spirit,  and  where  these  are  usually 
absent  there  is  something  uTong — perhaps,  it  is  true, 
some  wrong  physical  condition,  but  perhaps  also  some 
pressure  from  the.  grown-up  helpers  that  needs  to  be  re- 
mo\fd,  or  some  lack  of  unselfish  sympathy.  The  joyous 
laughter  of  the  children  is  the  sure  sign  that  all  is  well ; 


AIMS  AND  FUNCTIONS  OF  NURSERY  SCHOOL  25 

it  means  health,  intelhgence,  happiness,  and  all  that  is 
good. 

No  mention  has  been  made  of  instruction  in  the  Nursery 
School,  because  in  any  formal  sense  it  has  no  place.  No 
reading,  no  writing,  no  number  lessons  should  on  any 
account  be  required — no  object-lessons  as  commonly  known 
should  be  allowed,  for  the  time  for  these  things  has  not 
yet  come.  Up  to  the  age  of  six  the  child  is  usually  fully 
occupied  in  mind  and  body  with  learning  from  actual 
experience  :  he  is  busily  taking  in  ideas  from  the  world 
about  him,  he  is  gaining  information  by  means  of  his  own 
questionings  of  grown-up  people — he  is  experimenting  with 
his  limbs,  his  senses,  his  hands,  in  a  thousand  ways. 
Nevertheless,  should  he  show  spontaneously  a  great  desire 
to  learn  to  write,  or  read,  he  should  not  be  thwarted ;  yet 
no  special  encouragement  should  be  given — for  the  energy 
•thus  used  is  diverted  from  direct  experience,  of  which  he 
can  hardly  have  too  much  at  this  period. 

All  tests  of  progress  should  be  rigidly  excluded  from  the 
Nursery  School.  Any  tendency  to  expect  a  given  amount 
of  proficiency  in  any  particular  direction  should  be  zealously 
avoided.  The  Nursery  School  has  nothing  to  do  with 
standard  results  as  known  in  the  elementary  school,  and 
cannot  too  carefully  guard  its  privilege  in  this  respect. 

This  does  not  mean  that  the  child  is  not  learning,  nor 
that  progress  is  not  looked  for  during  this  period.  Im- 
perceptible though  it  may  seem  from  day  to  day,  it 
is  unmistakably  shown  in  healthy  growth  of  body,  increase 
of  physical  control  and  power  of  sustained  attention, 
multiplying  interests,  and  happy  freedom  in  creative 
activity. 


PART    II 

THE   MIND  OF  THE  CHILD 
By  Olive  A.  Wheeler,  D.Sc. 

Lecturer  in  Education,  Manchester  University 
CHAPTER    I 

THE  INNATE  BASES  OF  CHARACTER 

THE  emphasis  which  modern  thought  has  laid  on 
the  inheritance  factor  in  development  has  made 
it  impossible  for  educationists  to  retain  the  view 
that  the  mind  of  a  child  is  originally  a  tabula  rasa  on  which 
impressions  can  be  made  as  upon  wax.  Even  at  birth  there 
are  marks  on  the  tablet — the  writing,  it  may  be,  of  imme- 
diate or  distant  ancestors.  Indeed,  the  whole  metaphor  of 
a  wax  tablet  is  fundamentally  misleading.  It  implies  that 
the  mind  is  passive,  whereas  both  in  conscious  experience 
and  in  the  realm  of  the  sub-conscious,  and  even  of  the 
unconscious,  there  is  always  the  whirr  of  Life.  In  every 
child,  no  matter  what  its  circumstances  may  be,  there  is 
a  life  urge,  a  creative  impulse  towards  completeness, 
which  expresses  itself  in  many  and  varied  ways.  It  is 
true  that  Life  succeeds  through  its  utilization  of  environ- 
ment, but  it  is  not  itself  passively  determined  by  that 
environment.  It  is  essentially  and  unceasingly  creative. 
And  those  parents  and  teachers  who  have  to  deal  with 
young  children,  and  who  desire  above  all  else  to  co-operate 
in  the  great  natural  processes  of  growth,  would  do  well  to 
remember  at  the  beginning  that  within  every  individual 
there  are  at  work  powerful  dynamic  forces  which  can 
neither  be  repressed  nor  ignored  wdth  impunity. 

What  are  these  forces  ?     What  are  the  original  and 
innate  tendencies  present  in  a  normal  individual  which 

27 


28  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

provide  the  starting-points  for  development  ?  They  seem 
to  be  of  two  chief  kinds.  There  are,  first,  the  natural 
appetites  such  as  hunger,  thirst,  and  the  sexual  appetite. 
And  there  are  the  instincts,  such  as  curiosity  and  pugnacity, 
which  appear  to  be  distinguishable  from  the  appetites  in 
that  they  make  their  appearance  in  response  to  specific 
situations.  For  example,  a  baby  seizes  a  spoon  and  pro- 
ceeds to  investigate  it  by  looking  at  it,  touching  it,  putting 
it  in  his  mouth,  banging  it  on  the  table,  and  throwing  it 
on  the  floor  ;  the  instinct  of  curiosity  which  is  at  work 
appears  in  response  to  an  external  object,  namely,  the  spoon. 
But  hunger,  thirst,  and  the  like,  appear  on  account  of 
general  conditions  within  the  organism.  Both  the  instincts 
and  the  appetites,  however,  are  innate  ;  that  is,  they  do 
not  arise  as  a  result  of  experience,  but  are  rather  the  bases 
on  which  development  proceeds. 

The  Appetites 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  hunger,  thirst,  nausea,  the 
desire  for  sleep,  and  the  desire  for  movement  are  most 
important  experiences  to  the  little  child.  Every  baby 
needs  food,  sleep,  and  movement  to  ensure  his  bodily 
development ;  and  his  first  dawnings  of  consciousness  arise 
out  of  these  primitive  appetites.  He  learns  to  know 
Mother  through  the  mother's  breast,  that  is,  through  the 
satisfaction  of  his  earliest  organic  needs.  These  appetites 
rightly  interpreted  are  not  carnal  :  they  are  not  merely 
bodily  :  they  are  Nature's  ways  of  ensuring  at  one  and 
the  same  time  the  physical  and  mental  development  of 
the  individual.  They  are  the  simplest  expressions  of 
the  life  urge  which  strives  ever  for  the  enrichment  of 
personality. 

The  first  principle  then  that  must  be  insisted  on  in  the 
organization  of  a  Nursery  School  is  that  there  should  be 
adequate  facilities  for  the  satisfaction  of  the  natural 
appetites  of  hunger,  thirst,  the  desire  for  sleep,  and  the 
desire  for  movement.  It  is  surprising  that  anyone  should 
ever  have  expected  little  children  to  attend  to  other 
occupations  when  the  fundamentid  needs  of  the  organism 


THE  MIND  OF  THE  CHILD  29 

were  left  unsatisfied.  Yet,  until  the  passing  of  "The 
Provision  of  Meals  Act,"  there  was  no  official  recognition 
of  the  principle  that  hungry  children  could  not  be 
expected  to  profit  by  their  instruction  in  reading, 
writing,  or  arithmetic.  And  even  now  teachers  have  not 
fully  realized  the  way  in  which  the  fundamental  appetites 
direct  the  powers  of  attention  in  these  early  years.  Little 
children  can  easily  be  interested  in  anything  that  is 
intimately  associated  with  the  satisfaction  of  these  needs. 
On  this  account  the  lunch  in  the  middle  of  the  morning 
and  the  sleep  in  the  afternoon  will  be  important  institu- 
tions in  a  Nursery  School.  By  having  a  meal  served  in 
school  the  children  can  not  only  be  taught  how  to  eat 
properly,  but  if  the  equipment  is  of  the  right  kind 
they  can  learn  their  first  lessons  in  orderly  social  co- 
operation. Some  will  move  the  tables  in  preparation  for 
the  meal ;  others  will  carry  the  little  trays  of  mugs  and 
distribute  the  plates  ;  the  older  ones  will  pour  out  the  milk 
for  the  younger  ;  and  afterwards  some  will  be  appointed 
to  wash  up.  They  will  thus  be  gaining  manual  dexterity  - 
and  control  of  their  bodies,  they  will  begin  to  realize  the 
value  of  orderliness  in  home-life,  and,  most  important  of 
all,  they  will  be  receiving  a  training  in  social  service.  At  the 
same  time  they  will  enjoy  their  little  duties.  Practical 
experience  bears  out  the  conclusion  that  might  have  been 
expected  from  psychological  analyses,  namely,  that  children 
at  this  stage  will  be  interested  in  anything  connected  with 
the  satisfaction  of  their  primitive  needs.  Boredom 
usually  comes  from  a  failure  to  see  the  purpose  of  the 
occupation  in  which  one  is  expected  to  engage.  And  so 
central  is  the  appetite  of  hunger  that  the  purpose  of  all 
duties  connected  with  the  provision  of  a  meal  is  evident 
even  to  the  limited  experience  of  the  two-year-old.  The 
work  of  the  farmer,  the  cook,  the  baker,  and  the  milkman, 
the  phenomena  of  seed-time  and  harvest,  are  for  the  same 
reason  absorbingly  interesting.  And  what  is  true  of 
hunger  is  true  also  of  the  other  appetites  that  function  at 
this  period.  They  are  the  centres  around  which  ever- 
broadening  circles  of  interest  can  be  drawn. 


30  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

There  is  considerable  disagreement  among  modern 
psychologists  concerning  the  part  played  by  the  sexual 
appetite  in  the  early  stages  of  life.  Freud  ^  holds  that  even 
in  babyhood  it  plays  an  important  part.  For  example, 
he  affirms  that  at  an  early  period,  before  feelings  of  shame 
and  disgust  arise  to  check  natural  impulses,  children 
frequently  stimulate  their  sex  organs,  and  find  pleasure  in 
so  doing.  He  even  goes  so  far  as  to  regard  thumb-sucking 
as  essentially  a  sexual  process.  On  the  other  hand, 
McDougall  ^  argues  with  considerable  force  and  judgment 
that  in  normal  cases  the  sexual  appetite  does  not  begin 
to  function  until  about  the  age  of  eight  years,  and  even 
then  it  is  weak  and  vaguely  directed.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  Freud's  concentration  on  neurotic  patients  has  made 
him  exaggerate  the  r61e  of  sex.  The  abnormal  minority, 
from  the  study  of  whom  he  obtains  his  generalizations, 
may  indeed  give  evidence  of  the  precocious  awakening  of 
sex,  but  in  the  case  of  the  great  majority  of  little  children  of 
Nursery  School  age  the  appetite  seems  to  be  inoperative. 

The  problem  of  the  minority  will  of  course  be  a  difficult 
one  for  the  Nursery  School  superintendent,  and  its  full 
solution  will  probably  have  to  wait  until  psj'Chologists 
are  more  certain  of  their  ground,  and  until  education 
authorities  realize  the  need  for  the  appointment  of  school 
psychologists  '  as  well  as  school  doctors.  The  one  thing 
that  the  Nursery  School  teacher  should  try  to  do  above  all 
else,  is  jealously  to  guard  the  normally  constituted  children 
from  the  influence  of  bad  example.  And  she  should 
remember  that  there  is  no  child  more  deserving  of  her  pity, 
and  more  in  need  of  sympathejt^ic  treatment,  than  the  little 
unfortunate  who  in  these  early  daj^s  shows  signs  of 
abnormal  sexual  development.  * 

The  Instincts 

In  addition  to  the  appetites,  there  are  also  other  impulses 

^  Freud,  "  Thr^  Contributions  to  the  Sexual  Tlicory."     19  lo. 

*  W.  McDougalT,  "  Social  Psychology."  (Supplementary  chapter. 
19 1 7  edition.) 

3  The  London  County  Council  has  already  made  such  an  appoint- 
ment. 


THE  MIND   OF  THE  CHILD  31 

which  are  innate  and  which  must  be  taken  into  account 
in  any  serious  attempt  to  understand  child  hfe.  These  ^ 
are  the  instincts,  the  ready-made  tendencies  to  know 
certain  objects,  and  to  feel  and  react  towards  them  in 
certain  ways.  For  example,  a  tiny  child  will  sometimes 
run  and  hide  when  he  sees  for  the  first  time  a  bear  or  some 
other  strange  animal.  This  impulse  is  not  the  result  of 
experience.  He  has  had  no  previous  experience  of  the 
animal  in  question.  But  there  is  within  him  an  inherited 
tendency  to  notice  the  animal,  and  to  feel  fear  in  its  presence, 
and  consequently  to  take  refuge  in  flight.  This  instinct 
obviously  has  a  biological  value  ;  it  tends  towards  the 
preservation  of  the  individual.  But  what  is  not  quite  so 
obvious  is  that  it  has  a  psychological  significance,  and  that 
the  parent  or  teacher  who  treats  the  child  as  though  the 
impulse  were  non-existent  is  utterly  unreasonable.  It 
is  one  of  the  springs  of  the  child's  conduct,  and  he  will 
never  be  understood  so  long  as  it  is  ignored.  If  he  is  to 
be  rightly  and  sympathetically  treated,  the  basis  of  his 
character  must  be  sought  in  these  inborn  tendencies  of 
his  nature.  And  the  recent  attempts  of  psychologists 
to  discover  the  chief  instincts  of  man  are  therefore  of 
interest  to  all  who  are  responsible  for  the  upbringing  of 
young  children. 

According  to  McDougall  ^  man  possesses  seven  primary    ' 
instincts,    corresponding   to    the   seven   simple    and    un- 
analysable emotions  experienced  by  him.     These  are  : 

Flight,  corresponding  to   the   emotion  of  fear. 
Repulsion,  ,,  ,,  ,,       disgust. 


Curiosity, 

Pugnacity, 

Self-assertion, 

Self-abasement, 

The  parental  instinct, 


wonder. 

anger. 

elation. 

subjection. 

the  tender  emotion. 


There  are  also  other  instincts,  such  as  constructiveness 
and  gregariousness,  which  are  important  but  not  primary  ; 
and  there  are  pseudo-instincts,  such  as  suggestion,  imitation, 
sympathy,    and    play,    which    are    distinguishable    from 

^  W.  McDougall,  "  Social^Psychology."     1908, 


32  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

instincts  in  that  they  are  general  innate  tendencies  without 
distinctive  specific  emotions.  McDougall's  work  has 
certainly  opened  the  way  for  further  advances,  and  more 
recently  Drever  ^  has  succeeded  in  evolving  a  methodical 
classification  of  the  innate  tendencies  of  man.  He  regards 
nausea  (McDougall's  repulsion)  as  an  appetite,  but 
otherwise  gives  the  same  list  as  McDougall,  except  that  he 
adds  hunting,  acquisitiveness,  and  courtship  to  the  instincts, 
and  experimentation  to  the  pseudo-instincts. 

With  the  exception  perhaps  of  courtship  and  the 
sexual  appetite,  all  these  innate  tendencies  come  into  play 
in  the  early  years  which  a  child  normally  spends  in  the 
nursery  or  the  Nursery  School.  They  are  the  prime 
movers  of  his  activities.  By  inheritance,  he  starts  with 
tendencies  of  appetition  and  aversion  towards  certain 
objects  or  of  curiosity  regarding  others  ;  under  varied 
conditions  he  tends  to  fight,  to  assert,  or  to  abase  himself ; 
he  has  natural  impulses  to  collect  all  kmds  of  odds  and 
ends,  to  construct,  and  to  experiment ;  and  he  has  innate 
social  tendencies  to  protect  and  imitate  others  and  to  find 
pleasure  in  being  with  his  fellows.  These  are  the  bases 
of  his  character.  It  is  true  that  he  has  in  addition  general 
capacities,  such  as  the  capacity  to  have  sensations,  to 
retain  impressions,  to  imagine,  to  reason,  and  the  like  ; 
but  these  capacities  are,  as  it  were,  harnessed  to  his 
appetites  and  instincts.  He  has  a  general  capacity  to 
perceive  ;  but  what  he  perceives  out  of  all  the  "booming, 
buzzing  confusion  "  of  the  world  around  him  will  depend 
on  his  native  interests.  He  has  a  general  capacity  to 
learn,  but  how  he  learns,  whether  by  lifeless  repetition 
or  by  experimentation  and  play,  should  depend  on  his 
natural  impulses.  At  this  stage  his  appetites  and  instincts 
should  be  the  directing  forces  of  his  development. 

One  of  the  chief  mistakes  that  educators  have  made  in 
the  past  is  that  they  have  concentrated  on  the  general 
capacities.  They  have  tried  to  teach  a  child  to  learn, 
and  to  learn  those  things  which  the  adult  thinks  valuable  ; 
and  they  have  frequently  neglected  the  powerful  innate 

^  J.  Drever,  "  Instinct  in  Man."     1917. 


THE  MIND  OF  THE  CHILD  83 

forces  which  impel  the  child  to  attend  to  some  things  to 
the  exclusion  of  others,  and  to  learn  by  some  methods  in 
preference  to  others.  Consequently  they  have  failed,  not 
only  in  their  immediate  object,  but  still  more  in  their 
training  of  the  child's  character.  They  have  failed  because 
they  have  worked  against  instead  of  with  Nature. 

There  are  two  grave  dangers  which  the  wise  Nursery 
School  teacher  will  seek  to  avoid.  There  is  first  the  danger 
of  over-stimulation,  that  is,  of  forestalling  Nature  ;  and 
it  is  highly  probable  that  this  is  the  temptation  to  which 
the  teacher  is  more  likely  to  succumb.  It  must  never  be 
forgotten  that  above  all  else  little  children  need  rest  and 
quiet ;  they  must  not  be  over-excited,  but  they  must  be 
allowed  to  go  at  their  own  pace  amid  calm  and  restful 
surroundings.  Formal  work  is  therefore  out  of  place  in 
the  Nursery  School.  There  will  be  teaching,  but  it  should 
be  the  kind  of  discursive  teaching  associated  with  home 
and  country  life  rather  than  the  formal  lessons  of  the 
conventional  school. 

There  is  in  the  second  place  the  danger  of  repressing 
natural  instincts — a  danger  the  full  significance  of  which 
many  parents  and  teachers  have  even  yet  not  realized. 

"  What  man  is  there  of  you,  who,  if  his  son  ask  bread, 
will  give  him  a  stone  ?  Or,  if  he  ask  a  fish,  will  he  give 
him  a  serpent  ?  " 

What  man  is  there  who  will  refuse  to  satisfy  his  son's 
primitive  appetite  of  hunger  ? 

And  yet  is  there  no  man  who,  if  his  son  ask  a  question, 
will  give  him  a  reprimand  or  even  a  blow  ?  Is  there  no 
man  who  will  refuse  to  satisfy  his  son's  instinct  of  curiosity, 
an  impulse  as  natural  to  him  as  the  appetite  of  hunger  ? 
Are  there,  indeed,  no  men  who  actively  repress  such  natural 
instincts  in  their  sons  by  treating  them  as  vices  ? 

The  instinct  of  curiosity,  which  is  one  of  Nature's  ways 
of  bringing  the  individual  into  harmony  with  his  physical 
and  social  environment,  is  frequently  treated  as  a  defect. 
The  child  is  called  "  Meddlesome  Matty,"  is  told  the  story 
of  "  Peeping  Tom,"  and  is  perhaps  even  punished  for  the 
presence  of  a  perfectly  natural  impulse. 
3 


34  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Or,  take  another  example  :  A  vigorous  child  of  two  will 
often  demand  in  no  uncertain  tones  to  be  allowed  to  ex- 
periment in  feeding  himself.  "  Let  me  try,"  he  says ;  and 
with  persistent,  though  not  always  successful,  efforts  he  will 
endeavour  to  use  his  spoon  and  fork.  But  there  are  mothers 
so  over-careful  of  their  furniture  and  the  baby's  clothes, 
that  they  will  frustrate  the  little  one's  instinct  of  experi- 
mentation, even  in  the  face  of  loud  protests  and  screams. 
They  will  refuse  to  let  him  teach  himself  the  valuable  lesson 
of  independence,  and  it  may  be  that  they  will  also  cross  his 
temper.  WTiat  numbers  of  children  have  had  their  develop- 
ment impeded  and  their  tempers  spoiled  by  their  m.others' 
over-anxiety  about  furniture  and  clothes  and  respectability ! 
We  are  only  just  beginning  to  realize,  largely  through 
the  work  of  Freud  and  Jung  and  other  psycho-analysts,  how 
great  is  the  danger  of  the  repression  of  the  appetites  and 
instincts — the  dynamic  forces  of  the  mind — and  how 
appalling  are  the  disasters  that  result  from  it.  It  has 
been  shown  beyond  all  doubt  that  a  powerful  impulse  or 
emotion  may  not  cease  to  exist  when  it  is  denied  expression. 
It  may  be  driven  into  the  unconscious,  and  find  for 
itself  surreptitious  and  indirect  modes  of  expression.  For 
example,  Jung  quotes  the  case  of  an  amateur  poet,  who 
was  extremely  irritated  on  one  occasion  by  the  pealing  of 
some  church  bells.  He  described  them  as  most  unmusical, 
whereas  they  were  really  noted  for  their  singular  purity  of 
tone.  On  investigation,  it  became  apparent  that  the 
real  cause  of  the  irritation  was  jealousy  of  the  clerg3^man 
who  was  attached  to  the  church  in  question,  and  who 
happened  to  be  a  rival  poet.  According  to  the  usages 
of  civilized  society,  the  jealousy  had  been  repressed.  It 
had  not  been  allowed  to  appear  as  such  in  the  poet's 
consciousness,  but  it  had  not  been  really  conquered.  And 
the  result  was  that  it  expressed  itself  by  the  indirect  path 
of  unjustified  criticism  of  the  church  bells  that  happened 
to  be  closely  associated  with  the  objectionable  clergyman. 
The  powerful  impulse  did  not  cease  to  exist  when  it  was 
denied  expression.  Rather  it  remained  as  a  dark  and 
unsuspected  influence,  capable  of  modifying  opinions  and 


THE  MIND  OF  THE  CHILD  35 

conduct,  and  of  interfering  with  rational  judgment.  It 
is  not  difficult  to  see  from  such  an  example  that  the  un- 
recognized presence  of  powerful  complexes  below  the 
threshold  of  consciousness  tends  to  mental  and  moral 
inefficiency.  In  some  cases  it  ends  in  grave  mental  dis- 
order. 

It  is  by  the  detailed  study  of  such  psycho-neuroses  that 
Freud  has  been  able  to  elaborate  a  technique  for  bringing 
the  suppressed  desires  back  into  consciousness.  By  the 
analysis  of  the  patient's  dreams,  and  by  the  method  of 
free  association,  he  has  frequently  been  able  to  reveal  to 
the  patient  what  the  repressed  complex  is,  and  thus  to 
put  him  on  the  high  road  to  recovery.  It  is  probably 
true  that  Freud  has  exaggerated  the  role  of  sex.  He  has 
practically  assumed  that  it  is  the  repression  of  this  one 
impulse  that  accounts  for  the  conditions  of  all  the  neurotic 
patients  whom  he  has  treated.  But  later  workers,  using 
similar  methods,  have  shown  that  the  repression  of  other 
powerful  impulses  tends  to  mental  disorder.  Adler  has 
tried  to  show  that  the  distorted  working  of  the  two  great 
instincts  of  self-assertion  and  self-abasement  are  the 
sources  of  all  neuroses.  Dr.  Boris  Sidis,  on  the  other 
hand,  regards  fear  as  the  great  cause  of  disorder  ;  and  his 
view  has  received  some  support  from  recent  investigations 
of  shell-shock  cases.  For  example,  a  soldier  suffering 
from  shell-shock  has  been  known  to  imagine  that  he  is 
paralysed  and  cannot  walk.  And  by  psycho-analysis  it 
has  been  revealed  that  the  symptom  is  due  to  an  un- 
conscious desire  for  a  disability  which  by  removing  him 
from  the  front-line  would  bring  relief  from  an  intolerabe 
strain.  All  his  life  he  has  been  taught  to  despise  cowards, 
and  to  suppress  primitive  manifestations  of  fear.  And 
in  the  Army  he  is  surrounded  by  a  public  opinion  which 
ranks  devotion  to  duty  higher  than  self-preservation. 
There  are  then  within  him  two  opposing  sets  of  tendencies — 
the  one  urging  him  to  forget  himself  in  his  devotion  to 
duty,  and  the  other — the  more  primitive — tending  to 
self-preservation.  He  is  not  strong  enough  to  face  the 
issue  and  win  his  way  to  a  real  solution  ;   and  so  in  order 


36  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

to  avoid  the  full  force  of  the  conflict  he  consistently 
represses  the  manifestations  of  fear  in  accordance  with 
public  opinion  and  refuses  to  recognize  its  existence. 
But  the  primitive  forces  of  self-preservation  do  not  on 
that  account  cease  to  exist.  They  are  driven  to  find 
indirect  expression  in  the  delusion  that  he  is  paralysed. 

The  truth  seems  to  be  that  the  repression  of  any  innate 
impulse  which  is  suffiiciently  powerful  may  be  the  source 
of  mental  and  moral  inefficiency.  Is  there  then  no  place 
for  discipline  in  the  Nursery  School  ?  Must  the  adult 
exercise  no  control  over  the  child's  activities  ?  To  assume 
such  a  position  is  to  misunderstand  the  contribution  of 
Freudian  psychology.  In  every  individual  there  will  be 
conflicts  between  primitive  life  impulses  and  the  traditions 
of  the  society  of  which  he  is  a  member.  No  one  has 
shown  more  clearly  than  Trotter  ^  how  great  is  the  repres- 
sive influence  of  herd  opinion,  and  how  inevitable  are 
conflicts  to  every  child  born  into  a  civilized  society.  Con- 
sequently there  must  be  discipline,  but  the  discipline  must 
be  of  such  a  nature  as  to  lead  the  child  to  face  and  solve 
his  conflicts.  -*It  must  not  be  merely  negative.  A  con- 
tinual "Thou  shalt  not  "  is  certain  to  lead  to  disaster 
in  one  of  two  directions.  If  the  individual  is  sufficiently 
vigorous  it  will  lead  to  an  explosion  in  which  the  pent-up 
forces  break  through  the  artificial  barriers  and  express 
themselves,  it  ma}/  be,  in  illegitimate  ways.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  organism  is  weakly,  repression  will  lead  to 
mental  ill-health.  An  unsolved  conflict  is  a  point  of  weak- 
ness in  the  mind.  Actual  disaster  may  not  come,  or  may 
only  come  in  adult  life  when  the  individual  suffers  some 
unusual  strain,  but  there  will  inevitably  result  some  degree 
of  mental  and  moral  instability  and  inefficiency. 

Discipline  is  needed,  but  to  be  of  use  it  must  be  sym- 
pathetic and  positive.  A  child  is  not  helped  to  conquer 
an  unreasonable  fear  by  unsympathetic  treatment.  Indeed 
mere  reprimand  favours  repression,  and  tends  to  drive  the 
emotional  excitement  below  the  threshold  of  consciousness, 
where  it  may  attach  itself  to  any  object.     And  the  last 

^  Trotter,  "  The  Instincts  of  the  Herd  in  Peace  and  War."  1916. 


THE  MIND  OF  THE  CHILD  37 

state  may  be  worse  than  the  first ;  for  instead  of  fear  of  one 
object  there  may  result  fearfulness  in  general.  A  skilful 
parent  or  teacher  will  prevent  this  by  gradually  leading 
the  child  to  see  that  the  fear  is  unreasonable.  His  aim"**^ 
will  not  be  the  suppression  of  the  manifestations  of  fear 
but  rather  the  solution  of  the  conflict.^  And  the  discipline 
adapted  to  this  end  must  inevitably  be  positive  and  deter- 
mined by  the  child's  interests.  The  energy  exhibited  in 
the  appetites  and  instincts  must  not  be  repressed  but  must 
be  re-directed.  For  example,  we  are  all  familiar  with  the 
child  who  is  said  to  be  continually  getting  into  mischief. 
He  hides  things  that  are  needed,  he  breaks  things,  he 
dirties  himself  by  playing  with  coal,  he  floods  the  bath- 
room by  playing  with  water,  and  he  is  always  doing  the 
wrong  thing.  Obviously  the  situation  is  not  met  by  any 
number  of  Don'ts.  He  must  play,  for  it  is  one  of  the 
fundamental  impulses  of  his  nature.  And  he  must  be 
allowed  to  experiment.  The  one  thing  to  do  is  to  direct 
into  legitimate  and,  if  possible,  useful  channels  the  mental 
energy  exhibited  in  the  so-called  misbehaviour.  How 
many  times  have  we  not  seen  the  mischievous  four-year- 
old  perfectly  contented  when  he  is  allowed  to  co-operate 
in  the  work  of  the  home  or  the  garden  ?  Let  him  shell 
the  peas,  and  top  and  tail  the  gooseberries  for  the  tart, 
cut  out  the  scones  with  the  cutter,  and  water  the  garden, 
and  he  will  not  only  be  kept  out  of  mischief,  but  the  very 
energy  that  would  have  been  anti-social  will  be  deflected 
into  socially  useful  channels.  When  he  is  older,  let  him 
have  opportunities  for  group  games,  let  him  have  a  strip 
of  garden  to  cultivate,  pets  to  look  after,  and  a  carpenter's 
bench  on  which  to  work,  and  let  him  be  encouraged  to 
make  things  that  are  needed  in  the  home,  and  the  chances 
are  that  his  energy  will  find  its  outlet  in  these  legitimate 
ways.  The  aim  of  the  parent  and  teacher  should  always^ 
be  "  not  to  destroy  but  to  fulfil."  Re-direction  and  not 
repression  of  the  instincts  is  the  key  to  the  discipline  of  i 
children.  ' 


CHAPTER    II 

THE  ACQUIRED  BASES  OF  CHARACTER 

THE  instincts  of  man  are  innate  and  powerful,  but 
they  are  not  fixed.  They  are  inherited  tendencies 
to  know  certain  objects,  to  be  affected  by  them,  and 
to  react  towards  them  in  certain  ways  ;  and  quite  early 
they  naturally  become  modified  both  on  their  cognitive 
and  motor  sides.  By  association  new  objects  and  ideas 
become  capable  of  exciting  them  ;  and  new  trains  of  action 
and  thought  take  the  place  of  the  earlier  reactions.  For 
example,  the  instinct  of  curiosity  is  at  first  only  aroused 
by  objects  that  can  be  sensed,  and  that  are  closely  related 
to  the  individual's  organic  needs ;  and  it  manifests  itself 
by  their  actual  manipulation.  But  the  same  impulse  is 
at  work  in  the  scholar  who  is  seeking  to  understand  an 
author,  in  the  scientist  who  is  endeavouring  to  wrest  from 
Nature  one  of  her  secrets,  and  in  the  philosopher  who  is 
striving  to  gain  a  satisfactory  interpretation  of  the  universe. 
Images  and  abstract  ideas  now  excite  it,  and  the  mere 
handling  of  material  objects  is  no  longer  its  chief  expression. 
The  instinct  has  been  intellectualized.  It  has  been  pro- 
foundly modified  on  the  cognitive  side,  and  its  direction 
has  been  changed  in  accordance  with  the  life  history  of 
the  individual  in  whom  it  functions. 

In  order  to  understand  little  children  it  is  therefore  not 
only  necessary  to  discover  what  are  their  appetites  and 
instincts,  but  it  is  also  necessary  to  know  what  modi- 
fications might  be  expected  to  occur  through  experience. 
An  instinct  involves  knowing  some  object,  being  aff'ected 

38 


THE  MIND  OF  THE  CHILD  39 

by  it,  and  proceeding  in  some  course  in  regard  to  it ;  and 
development  certainly  takes  place  in  each  of  these  three 
distinguishable  aspects  of  experience,  namely,  in  cognition, 
feeling,  and  conation.  These  can  be  considered  separately 
without  misconception,  provided  that  it  be  remembered 
that  the  individual  is  one,  and  that  consequently  develop- 
ment in  one  direction  interacts  with  that  in  others. 

The  Development  of  Cognition 

It  is  little  more  than  a  truism  to  say  that  at  the  early 
stages  a  child's  interests  lie  altogether  in  the  sphere  of 
sensation.  The  only  objects  to  which  he  attends  are 
things  that  can  be  seen,  heard,  tasted,  smelled,  and  handled. 
At  this  stage  it  is  perceived  objects  that  excite  the  instincts 
with  which  he  is  endowed.  If  he  feels  fear,  it  is  caused  by 
such  things  as  furry  animals,  loud  noises,  and  large  eyes — 
that  is,  by  things  actually  present  to  the  senses.  Even 
his  play  is  at  first  on  the  perceptual  level.  He  finds 
pleasure  in  shaking  a  rattle  or  throwing  a  ball,  in  banging 
a  spoon  on  the  table,  or  dropping  nuts  into  a  box.  His 
play  at  this  stage  has  not  that  element  of  pretence  which 
is  afterwards  its  most  notable  feature.  Consequently 
this  is  the  period  specially  adapted  for  sense-training. 

Whatever  differences  of  opinion  there  may  be  concerning 
the  value  of  the  apparatus  devised  by  Dr.  Montessori  for 
sense-training,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  she  has  succeeded, 
where  others  before  her  have  failed,  in  making  the  educa- 
tional world  realize  the  advisability  of  beginning  at  the 
beginning.  Sense  experience  comes  first,  and  if  the  earliest 
avenues  to  the  mind  are  not  educated  the  whole  cognitive 
life  will  obviously  suffer.  It  is  therefore  imperative  that 
due  opportunities  should  be  given  for  the  exercise  of  the 
senses  in  this  early  period. 

Dr.  Montessori's  contribution  on  this  point  is  funda- 
mental, but  she  seems  to  have-  ignored  one  psychological 
fact  with  regard  to  the  nature  of  the  development  of  later 
cognitive  processes.  She  has  realized  that  by  learning 
to  use  his  senses  with  discrimination   a  child  becomes 


40  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

capable  of  comparing  and  judging — that  is,  he  becomes 
capable  of  other  cognitive  processes  than  mere  perception. 
Indeed  in  her  view  the  true  aim  of  sense  training  ' '  is  not 
that  the  child  shall  know  colours,  forms,  and  the  different 
qualities  of  objects,  but  that  he  shall  refine  his  senses 
through  an  exercise  of  attention,  of  comparison,  and  of 
judgment."  And  she  has  allowed  for  this  development, 
this  transition  from  the  concrete  to  the  abstract,  or  from 
sensations  to  concepts.  But  her  system  seems  to  make  no 
adequate  provision  for  another  development  that  takes 
place.  The  perception  of  objects  not  only  invokes  com- 
parison and  abstraction,  but  it  essentially  involves  reten- 
tiveness.  To  recognize  an  object  implies  a  power  of 
retaining  earlier  impressions  as  well  as  a  power  of  receiving 
impressions.  And  a  child  soon  becomes  capable  of  repro- 
ducing earlier  percepts  without  the  aid  of  sensations. 
Indeed  his  general  capacity  of  retentiveness  gradually 
becomes  increasinglj'  independent  of  present  sense  ex- 
periences. He  recalls  the  past,  he  reproduces  former 
percepts.  Subsequently  he  begins  to  combine  these 
memory  images  into  new  wholes,  and  imagination  begins 
-  to  play  its  part  in  his  life.  Images  will  now  excite  the 
instincts.  If  he  fears,  he  is  as  likely  to  be  afraid  of  ghosts 
and  bogies  and  other  objects  created  by  his  imagination 
as  he  is  of  objects  present  to  the  senses.  Similarly  his 
power  of  imitation  is  extended  to  include  the  imitation 
of  imagined  as  well  as  perceived  objects,  and  he  begins  to 
be  able  to  dramatize.  For  example,  he  may  pretend  to 
be  a  giraffe  or  a  polar  bear  and  act  accordingly,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  he  has  never  seen  the  animal  in' 
question. 

At  first  this  new  power  of  imagination  is  indiscriminate, 
and  it  therefore  obviously  needs  education.  It  is  of 
course  true  that  the  images  which  a  child  possesses  may  to 
some  extent  be  determined  by  controlling  his  sense 
experiences.  For  example,  if  he  is  brought  up  in  a  suitable 
environment,  he  will  not  be  likely  to  have  as  his  favourite 
game  "playing  at  being  drunk."  In  general,  if  he  is 
surrounded  by  Ij^autiful  objects,  his  imagination  will  on 


THE  MIND  OF  THE  CHILD  41 

the  whole  be  at  work  on  healthier  material.  But  it  does 
not  follow  that  the  problem  of  its  training  will  have  been 
completely  solved  ;  for  in  the  early  stages  there  are  at  least 
two  directions  in  which  its  immaturity  plainly  manifests 
itself.  In  the  first  place  there  is  a  failure  to  discriminate 
between  what  is  perceived  and  what  is  imagined.  For 
example,  a  little  boy  of  three  who  was  staying  at  the  sea- 
side related  a  long  story  in  which  he  figured  as  the  rescuer 
of  a  drowning  lady.  His  mother  tried  in  vain  to  force 
him  to  acknowledge  that  it  was  not  true,  but  he  continued 
to  afhrm  that  it  had  actually  happened,  and  he  invented 
more  and  more  circumstantial  evidence  in  support  of  his 
statement.  Probably  owing  to  a  misunderstanding  of 
the  cause  which  gave  rise  to  the  incident,  the  mother  was 
considerably  disturbed,  and  eventually  punished  the  child 
for  telling  "such  a  story."  The  truth  is  that  little 
children  with  active  imaginations  frequently  fail  to  dis- 
tinguish between  what  has  actually  happened  and  what 
has  only  been  imagined.  There  is  no  intent  to  deceive, 
but  they  have  not  learned  the  distinguishing  marks  of 
images  as  contrasted  with  percepts.  Their  affirmations 
that  certain  impossible  adventures  have  actually  happened 
should  therefore  not  be  treated  over-seriously.  The  adult 
should  enter  into  the  story  and  implicitly  assume  that  it 
is  fun,  not  by  saying  so,  but  perhaps  by  the  addition  of 
amusing  details.  What  is  needed  is  not  punishment, 
but  gradual  training  of  the  imagination. 

The  tiny  child  has  then  to  learn  to  distinguish  between 
what  is  perceived  and  what  is  imagined  ;  and  he  also 
has  to  learn  to  control  the  imaginative  processes  them- 
selves. At  first  his  imagination  is  wild.  It  submits 
to  no  canons  ;  it  obeys  no  rules  ;  it  is  not  guided  by  a 
dominant  purpose.  It  is  like  the  spontaneous  imagination 
that  frequently  seems  to  be  at  work  in  an  adult's  dreams, 
and  is  not  controlled  and  purposive  as  is  the  creative 
imagination  of  the  artist.  But  largely  through  play, 
and  sometimes  through  constructive  work  in  drawing, 
modelling,  story-teUing,  and  dramatization,  and  through 
improvisation  in  rhythmic  movement  and  music,  it  can 


42  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

gradually  be  brought  under  control  and  into  closer  relation- 
ship with  reality.  It  seems  as  though  Nature  has  made, 
special  provision  for  the  training  of  the  imagination  by 
the  presence  in  the  mind  of  the  innate  impulse  to  play. 
This  powerful  pseudo-instinct  is  not  only  one  of  the  means 
by  which  a  child  learns  to  gain  control  of  his  body  and  his 
powers  of  perception  and  movement,  but  it  also  provides 
the  best  possible  early  discipline  for  the  imagination. 
Through  his  constructive  plays  he  learns  to  distinguish 
between  pretence  and  actuality,  and  he  is  led  to  see  the 
wisdom  of  suppressing  that  which  contributes  nothing 
to  the  main  purpose.  Thus  his  general  capacity  to  imagine 
gradually  becomes  more  controlled  and  more  truly  creative 
through  the  directing  influence  of  one  of  his  most  powerful 
innate  impulses. 

Other  powers  of  cognition  also  develop  in  the  period 
of  life  between  the  ages  of  two  and  six  years.  In  learning 
to  perceive  with  discrimination  a  child  is  continually  being 
driven  to  compare  and  judge.  He  is  at  the  same  time 
learning  to  speak  and  to  enter  into  communication  with 
those  around  him,  and  in  this  way  he  is  frequently  led  to 
direct  his  attention  to  a  common  element  in  a  group  of 
objects.  Thus  concepts  and  explicit  judgments  become 
possible.  Very  soon  he  gains  a  number  of  fundamental 
abstract  ideas  of  position,  of  size,  of  shape,  of  number,  and 
of  time.  He  knows  the  meaning  of,  and  can  use  correctly, 
such  words  as  up,  down,  by,  little,  round,  square,  one, 
two,  three,  yesterday,  soon,  and  so  on.  The  use  of  words 
obviously  aids  the  comparison  and  abstraction  necessary 
for  the  formation  of  the  concepts.  The  mother  teaching 
her  baby  to  speak  cannot  therefore  be  too  exact  in  her 
own  use  of  words,  nor  too  careful  in  testing  whether  the 
idea  is  clear  in  the  mind  of  the  child  who  uses  the  corres- 
ponding term.  Exact  nomenclature  certainly  makes  for 
clearness  of  ideas  and  lays  the  foundations  for  good  reason- 
ing. Language  teaching  is  therefore  important  in  this 
formative  period  ;  but  it  must  always  be  remembered 
that  it  is  possible  for  language  to  outrun  thought.  For 
example,  the  learning  by  heart  of  creeds  and  passages  of 


THE  MIND  OF  THE  CHILD  43 

the  Bible,  in  which  a  child  shows  no  interest  and  which 
he  does  not  understand,  will  only  serve  to  clutter  up  his 
mind — no  matter  how  valuable  these  may  be  in  themselves. 
In  many  cases  a  habit  of  substituting  words  for  thought 
has  thus  been  formed,  and  eventually  language  has 
become  not  so  much  an  aid  to  thought  as  a  means  of 
avoiding  it.  Language  is  indeed  a  good  servant  but  a 
bad  master. 

When  a  child  can  observe,  compare,  and  judge  it  is  but 
a  short  step  to  reasoning,  that  is,  to  attempts  to  connect 
judgments.  And  a  normal  child's  mastery  of  logic  is  almost 
surprising.  Even  before  he  is  five  years  of  age  he  is  most 
acute  in  the  deductions  that  he  draws  from  given  premises. 
And  usually  when  he  is  only  about  three  or  four  years  of 
age  he  has  an  extraordinary  feeling  after  casual  connexion. 
He  continually  asks  "Why?  "  And  he  is  not  satisfied 
with  the  next  link  in  the  chain  of  casual  connexion.  He 
always  wishes  to  push  the  enquiry  one  step  further  back. 
"  Why  is  the  coal-box  black  ?  "  asked  a  little  boy  of  four. 
"  Oh,  the  ma,n  probably  made  it  black  so  that  the  marks 
from  the  coal  would  not  show,"  was  the  reply  which  he 
received.  "Why  is  the  coal  black?"  was  inevitably 
the  next  question. 

At  first  no  convention  nor  authority  is  strong  enough  to 
bar  the  way  to  this  free  spirit  of  enquiry.  It  is  true, 
however,  that  this  stage  soon  passes,  but  while  it  lasts 
it  will  present  one  of  the  greatest  opportunities  to  the 
Nursery  School  teacher.  It  is  an  opportunity  which  has 
usually  been  wasted  in  the  past.  The  majority  of  children 
have  been  surrounded  by  adults  who  were  either  bored 
or  merely  amused  by  the  questions,  and  who  did  not 
realize  their  full  significance.  The  truth  is  that  the  instinct 
of  curiosity  which  prompted  the  child  at  an  earlier  stage 
to  investigate  actual  objects  is  now  harnessed  to  the  service 
of  the  new  power  of  reasoning  and  is  securing  opportunities 
for  its  exercise.  The  questionings  must  therefore  not  be 
repressed,  but  as  far  as  possible  they  must  be  encouraged  if 
the  child's  cognitive  development  is  to  be  complete. 


44  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

The  Development  of  Conation 

Man's  primary  instincts  not  only  develop  on  the  cognitive 
side,  but  they  are  also  subject  to  profound  modifications 
on  the  motor  or  conative  side.  The  primitive  reactions 
are  soon  superseded,  but  the  instincts  do  not  on  that 
account  cease  to  direct  the  individual's  activity.  They 
come  into  play  in  some  form  or  other  whenever  he  expe- 
riences the  primary  emotions.  For  example,  the  emotion 
of  anger  expresses  itself  at  first  in  indiscriminate  hitting 
out  in  all  directions  ;  but  later  the  blows  are  definitely 
directed  to  the  destruction  or  injury  of  the  object  which 
excites  the  instinct.  At  a  still  later  stage  words  may  be 
found  to  be  more  economical  to  the  individual  who  is 
angry  and  more  in  accordance  with  the  usages  of  civilized 
society,  and  they  may  therefore  be  substituted  for  blows. 

Acquired  bases  of  character  thus  come  in  and  help  to 
direct  the  individual's  conduct.  Actions  which  were 
not  innate  may  by  repetition  become  automatic,  that  is, 
habits  may  be  formed  ;  and  these  as  well  as  the  instincts 
play  a  part  in  the  determining  conduct  at  the  later  stages. 
Very  naturally  the  habits  which  are  likely  to  be  permanent 
and  effective  are  those  which  are  grafted  on  innate  impulses, 
and  not  those  which  are  artificially  imposed  on  the 
individual  by  outside  authority.  By  repetition  a  child 
naturally  acquires  the  habit  of  making  certain  speech 
sounds.  This  is  not  contrary  to  Nature,  but  is  rather  a 
fulfilment  of  her  promise  ;  for  every  normal  child  has  a 
natural  impulse  to  speak  and  to  imitate  his  fellows.  He  is 
therefore  led  to  make  repeated  efforts  to  do  this  desirable 
thing,  and  his  patience  is  almost  inexhaustible.  Habits 
of  personal  cleanliness,  of  good  table  manners,  of  correct 
speech,  of  politeness,  of  consideration  for  others,  and  of 
truthfulness  can  all  be  built  on  natural  impulses.  But  to 
attempt  to  make  children  form  a  habit  of  sitting  still,  as 
is  done  even  yet  in  some  infant  schools,  is  to  go  contrary 
to  Nature.  Such  a  habit  will  only  be  temporarily  main- 
tained by  undue  external  authority  and  at  great  strain 
both  to  the  teacher  and  to  the  taught. 


THE  MIND  OF  THE  CHILD  45 

With  the  development  of  the  cognitive  side  of  experience 
other  kinds  of  action  also  become  possible.  When  a  child 
can  form  images  and  concepts,  some  of  his  actions  will  be 
voluntary  and  not  automatic.  They  will  be  preceded  by 
an  image  or  idea  of  the  end  to  be  attained  through  the 
action.  For  example,  a  child  may  watch  his  mother 
turn  a  key  in  a  lock  and  may  imitate  her,  turning  the 
key  backwards  and  forwards  without  any  ulterior  end  in 
view.  This  would  be  an  instinctive  act  of  imitation  and 
would  take  place  almost  automatically.  But  on  the  other 
hand  he  may  know  that  within  a  locked  cupboard  are  some 
chocolates,  and  he  may  turn  the  key  with  the  intention  of 
opening  the  cupboard  and  getting  them.  In  this  case 
his  action  would  be  voluntary  ;  it  would  be  guided  through- 
out by  the  image  of  the  chocolates. 

A  further  complication  may  be  introduced  by  the 
presentation  in  consciousness  of  two  alternative  ends. 
The  child  may  realize  that  if  he  gains  the  prize  he  will 
also  offend  his  mother  ;  and  in  this  case,  before  any  action 
takes  place,  he  will  have  to  choose  between  the  two  ends — 
the  chocolates,  and  his  mother's  approval.  His  choice  will 
of  course  depend  on  the  value  which  he  attaches  to  these 
ends.  If  his  love  for  his  mother  is  sufficiently  strong, 
he  will  decide  that  it  is  not  worth  while  to  gain  the  choco- 
lates. On  the  other  hand  if  his  love  is  weak,  he  will  not 
be  able  to  use  it  to  control  his  appetite.  The  process  of 
evaluation  is  then  influenced  by  the  power  and  organization 
of  his  feelings.  So  interwoven  are  the  three  aspects  of 
experience,  that  it  is  impossible  to  understand  the  highest 
kinds  of  action  without  considering  the  development 
of  the  emotional  life. 

The  Development  of  Feeling 

Acting  as  a  link  between  the  processes  of  cognition  and 
conation  which  are  involved  in  the  primary  instincts  are 
the  primary  emotions.  Every  child  inherits  tendencies 
to  feel  fear,  disgust,  wonder,  anger,  elation,  subjection, 
and  the  tender  emotion.    And   gradually   the   range    of 


46  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

emotional  experience  increases  as  these  fuse  to  yield 
secondary  and  tertiary  emotions.  A  little  child  of  two  is 
capable  of  feeling  fear,  and  subjection,  and  wonder, 
separately  ;  but  he  does  not  appear  to  be  capable  of 
experiencing  the  compound  emotion  of  awe  which  results 
from  the  fusing  of  these  three.  If  he  enters  a  cathedral, 
or  meets  the  King  or  the  Pope,  his  emotional  response 
to  the  situation  is  simple  compared  with  the  subtle  response 
of  the  adult.  If  his  own  father  has  great  ability,  personal 
magnetism,  and  European  fame  he  will  not  feel  reverence 
towards  him.  He  may  experience  the  tender  emotion, 
and  perhaps  subjection  on  occasions,  and  wonder  at  some 
of  his  father's  actions,  but  he  will  not  feel  the  emotion  that 
arises  from  compounding  the  tender  emotion,  sub- 
jection, and  wonder.  His  emotional  experiences  are  crude 
and  undifferentiated.  "  Which  colour  do  you  like  best  ?  " 
asked  a  teacher  of  a  small  boy  in  the  kindergarten  of  a 
great  public  school.  "  I  like  blue  best,  and  I  like  sausages 
best  to  eat,"  was  his  reply.  Subtle  and  carefully  differ- 
tiated  emotional  responses  to  the  environment  only 
gradually  become  possible,  and  indeed  the  most  subtle  of 
all  delay  their  appearances  until  adolescence. 

Although  the  range  of  emotional  response  is  thus  limited 
in  this  early  period,  a  most  important  development  of  the 
emotional  life  is  taking  place  in  another  direction.  Groups 
of  emotions  are  beginning  to  be  associated  around  organiz- 
ing ideas,  that  is,  sentiments  as  distinguished  from  emotions 
are  beginning  to  be  formed.  For  example,  a  little  child 
learns  to  love  his  mother.  This  means  something  more 
than  that  he  occasionally  experiences  the  tender  emotion 
when  she  is  present  to  his  senses.  It  means  that  he  has 
a  permanent  disposition  to  feel  a  whole  group  of  emotions 
under  various  circumstances.  If  he  knows  that  his  mother 
is  in  danger,  he  feels  fear  ;  if  she  is  suffering,  he  grieves  ; 
if  she  is  ill-treated,  he  is  angry  with  those  responsible  ; 
and  if  she  is  honoured,  he  rejoices.  A  whole  group  of 
emotions — fear,  grief,  anger,  joy,  and  the  tender  emotion — 
are  thus  organized  around  the  idea  of  his  mother.  Such 
an  organization  enables  the  individual  to  control  momen- 


THE  MIND  OF  THE  CHILD  47 

tary  appetites  and  impulses.  At  first,  when  a  child  is 
not  allowed  by  his  mother  to  have  some  desired  object, 
the  emotion  of  anger  which  he  experiences  seeks  immediate 
outlet  in  blows.  But  later,  when  the  sentiment  of  love 
for  his  mother  is  less  rudimentary,  he  is  able  to  control 
the  momentary  impulse  by  means  of  the  permanent 
organization. 

The  sentiments  formed  during  Nursery  School  age 
tend  of  course  to  be  concrete.  The  kind  of  abstract 
sentiments  which  influence  the  conduct  of  some  adults, 
such  as  hate  of  oppression,  love  of  justice,  of  truth,  of  power, 
or  of  freedom  will  not  appear  at  this  stage.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  cognitive  side  of  experience  is  insufficient. 
But  although  the  little  child  cannot  yet  hate  oppression 
in  the  abstract,  he  can,  and  does,  hate  the  bully.  He  may 
not  love  humanity  in  the  abstract,  but  he  soon  begins  to 
love  individuals — his  mother,  himself,  his  teacher,  and  his 
little  friends  ;  and  by  means  of  such  concrete  sentiments 
he  learns  the  first  lesson  in  controlling  his  wayward  - 
emotions.  He  ceases  to  be  the  slave  of  every  passing 
impulse,  and  some  degree  of  consistency  is  thus  gradually 
introduced  into  his  character  and  conduct.  "  In  the 
growth  of  character,"  says  Shand,  "  the  sentiments  tend,v 
with  increasing  success,  to  control  the  emotions  and 
impulses  ;  in  the  decline  of  character  the  emotions  and 
impulses  tend,  with  increasing  power,  to  achieve  their 
freedom."^  The  formation  of  simple  concrete  sentimerttSj^ 
is  thus  the  most  fundamental  development  of  character 
that  takes  place  normally  during  Nursery  School  age, 
and  it  is  consequently  all  important  that  the  right  kind  of 
sentiments  should  be  formed. 

In  a  strong  and  mature  character  the  whole  emotional 
life  is  usually  organized  under  the  control  of  one  dominating 
sentiment,  which  is  thus  the  means  of  bringing  unity  and 
purpose  into  all  the  thoughts  and  actions  of  the  individual. 
And  the  particular  master  sentiment  which  co-ordinates  all 
the  other  tendencies  will  depend  partly  on  the  kind  of  senti- 
ments which  have  been  emphasized  in  early  childhood. 
^  Shand,  "  The  Foundations  of  Character."     1914. 


48        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

It  is  indeed  fortunately  true  that  there  is  always  the 
possibility  of  the  appearance  at  later  stages  of  a  new 
powerful  emotion  or  group  of  emotions,  which  will  disturb 
the  balance  between  the  sentiments.  Many  a  girl  who  has 
been  brought  up  to  consider  herself  as  all  important  has 
become  a  self-sacrificing  mother  through  the  appearance 
of  new  emotions  which  were  sufficiently  powerful  to  bring 
down  the  sentiment  of  love  of  self  from  its  place  of  honour. 
But  this  type  of  conversion  does  not  always  take  place ; 
and  it  is  not  surprising  that  our  competitive  educational 
system,  with  its  prizes  and  examinations,  has  turned  out 
numbers  of  individuals  in  whom  the  master  sentiment  is 
love  of  success  or  of  power. 

What  sentiment  then  ought  to  be  the  master  sentiment 
in  maturity  ?  It  is  not  likely  that  anyone  will  seriously 
suggest  that  it  should  be  love  of  material  prosperity.  And 
yet  the  way  is  often  thoughtlessly  prepared  in  childhood 
for  the  later  domination  of  this  sentiment.  Many  little 
children  are  consistently  trained  to_control^heir ^thoughts 
and  conduct  by  love  of  material  rewards  ;  and  it  is  there- 
fore not  surprismgThat  love  of  money  and  aU  that  it 
implies  should  become  the  master  sentiment  in  adult 
life.  The  sentiment  which  usually  seems  to  have  dominated 
the  highest  known  types  of  human  character  is  that  of 
self-respect,  with  its  correlative  of  love  of  others,  or,  it  may 
be,  of  love  of  God ;  and  even  at  Nursery  School  age  prepara- 
tion can  be  made  for  its  advent  in  maturity. 

What  is  needed  at  this  stage  is  not  so  much  dogmatic 
religious  and  moral  instruction  as  encouragement  and 
opportunity  for  the  right  kinds  of  feeling  and  action.  And 
consequently  the  school  must  be  run  from  the  beginning  on 
co-operative  and  not  competitive  lines.  Co-operation 
between  children  of  different  ages  is  most  valuable,  and  on 
this  account  it  is  extremely  doubtful  whether  the  Nursery 
School  should  be  divided  into  graded  classes  as  is  cus- 
tomary in  primary  and  secondary  schools.  Little 
children  of  six  years  of  age  are  most  willing  to  help  with 
the  babies,  and  they  will  display  extraordinary  patience 
and  powers  of  sacrifice  if  they  are  given  some  measure  of 


THE  MIND  OF  THE  CHILD  49 

responsibility.  Our  public  schools  have  realized  the 
value  of  co-operation  between  boys  and  girls  of  different 
ages,  and  many  of  their  boarding-houses  are  run  on  this 
principle.  But,  for  the  sake  of  ease  in  the  organization  of 
the  formal  work,  we  are  usually  tempted  to  divide  children 
into  sections  and  stages  in  such  a  way  that  a  large  measure 
of  social  co-operation  becomes  difficult.  In  the  Nursery 
School  however  there  is  no  need  for  formal  work,  and 
consequently  there  is  no  justification  for  forming  artificial 
groups.  The  natural  organization  is  that  of  the  home, 
where  children  of  different  ages  co-operate,  and  where 
consequently  a  more  adequate  training  in  character  and 
the  responsibilities  of  community  life  can  be  given. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS 

THE  main  developments  that  take  place  in  cognition, 
conation,  and  feeling  during  Nursery  School  age 
have  now  been  outlined,  and  there  remains  to  be 
considered  the  development  that  occurs  in  self-conscious- 
ness within  the  same  period.  The  emotions,  cognitions,  and 
conations  are  the  experiences  of  one  individual,  but  this 
individual  only  gradually  attains  to  consciousness  of  self. 
Of  course  even  before  Nursery  School  age  there  arises 
consciousness  of  the  bodily  self.  By  exploration  and 
through  pains  and  pleasures  the  baby  soon  begins  to 
distinguish  between  his  own  body,  in  which  are  localized 
organic  sensations,  and  other  bodies  ;  but  there  is  at  first 
no  real  sense  of  personality.  Reflective  self-consciousness 
is  essentially  a  social  product,  and  arises  through  the 
directing  influence  of  the  social  instincts,  namely,  self- 
assertion  and  self-abasement,  gregariousness,  sympathy, 
suggestion,  imitation,  and  play. 

From  the  first  the  child  is  one  among  others,  and  his 
sense  of  his  own  personality  develops  through  interaction 
with  those  around  him.  For  example,  the  use  of  imitation 
is  one  of  the  outstanding  features  of  his  life  during  Nursery 
School  age  ;  and  through  it  he  not  only  acquires  the 
language  and  the  customs  of  his  people,  but  he  also  gains  a 
realization  of  himself  as  an  agent, that  is,  as  able  to  do  things 
when  he  wishes.  It  is  his  effort  to  imitate  those  around 
him  that  first  draws  his  attention  to  his  own  inner  experi- 
ences ;  and  his  adoption  of  a  language  sanctioned  by  custom 

50 


THE  MIND  OF  THE  CHILD  51 

helps  him  to  analyse  those  experiences.  He  not  only 
knows  objects — milk,  his  ball,  cows,  horses,  Mother  and 
Daddy — but  after  a  period  of  persistent  imitation  he  learns 
to  attend  to  his  own  subjective  experiences,  and  he  knows 
that  he  likes  milk,  that  he  wants  to  throw  the  ball,  that  he 
is  going  to  see  the  cows,  that  he  is  playing  horses,  or  that 
he  is  being  nursed  by  Mother. 

This  knowledge  of  self  is  in  turn  used  to  interpret  those 
around  him.  He  begins  to  reahze  that  they  also  have 
pains  and  desires,  likes  and  dislikes,  and  that  they  try  to 
do  things  ;  and  thus,  through  an  increasing  understanding 
of  himself,  he  acquires  an  increasing  insight  into  their 
behaviour.  The  knowledge  of  self  and  the  understanding 
of  others  thus  grow  together,  each  reacting  on  the  other. 
When  his  conception  of  himself  is  crude,  his  interpretations 
of  others  are  also  indiscriminate.  For  example,  he  passes 
through  a  period  in  which  he  does  not  distinguish  clearly 
between  men,  animals,  and  inanimate  objects.  They  are 
all  persons  with  pains  and  desires  and  responsibilities,  like 
those  which  he  dimly  recognizes  within  himself.  When 
his  milk  is  too  hot  he  describes  it  as  "  naughty,"  just  as 
he  would  a  person  who  does  not  please  him.  It  is  only 
gradually  that  he  learns  to  distinguish  between  persons, 
animals,  and  inanimate  objects,  and  the  comparison  necessi- 
tated for  this  distinction  clarifies  his  idea  of  himself.^ 
Indeed,  the  developed  conception  of  self  is  essentially  an- 
idea  of  a  self  in  relation  to  other  selves  and  to  society  in 
general.  This  is  the  reason  why  true  self-respect  is  not  in 
opposition  to,  but  is  the  correlative  of,  the  sentiment  of 
love  for  others. 

During  Nursery  School  age  a  child's  knowledge  of 
himself  certainly  increases,  but  it  must  never  be  forgotten 
that  at  the  best  it  is  very  slight.  So  many  impulses  come 
from  the  unconscious  that  it  is  easy  for  him  to  be  deceived 
in  regard  to  the  motives  which  prompted  him  to  the  per- 
formance of  a  certain  action.  If  he  is  pressed  to  say  why 
he  did  such  and  such  a  thing,  he  may  make  up  a  reason, 

^  This  development  is  dealt  with  in  detail  in  my  book,  "  Anthro- 
pomorphism and  Science,"  pp.  112-41. 


52  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

not  with  any  intent  to  deceive,  but  because  the  whole 
incident  is  unintelligible  to  him.  The  truth  is  that  human 
thought  and  conduct  is  much  more  impulsive  and  illogical 
than  has  usually  been  supposed,  and  self-consciousness 
often  represents  most  inadequately  the  workings  of 
this  impulsive  force.  Self-deception  is  therefore  easy 
even  to  the  trained  adult.  Psycho-analytic  methods 
and  especially  dream  analyses  have  frequently  revealed 
the  fact  that  it  is  possible  for  primitive  impulses  to  deter- 
mine the  conduct  of  an  individual  when  he  is  totally 
unaware  of  their  existence.^  The  suggestion  has  therefore 
been  made,  notably  by  Mr.  Homer  Lane  and  Mr.  Kenneth 
Richmond,  that  teachers  should  use  psycho-analytic 
methods  in  school,  so  that  children  should  really  learn  to 
know  themselves.  This  seems  to  be  a  dangerous  proposi- 
tion, for  an  analysis  by  Freudian  methods  is  as  serious  to 
the  mind  of  an  individual  as  is  an  operation  to  the  body. 
It  should  therefore  only  be  undertaken  when  it  is  necessary, 
and  then  by  analysts  who  have  received  specialized  training 
in  medicine  and  psychology. 

What  the  Nursery  School  teacher  can  do  is  to  prevent 
unnatural  repression  of  primitive  impulses.  She  can 
avoid  the  over-repressive  discipline  which  drives  them 
below  the  threshold  of  consciousness,  where  they  tend  to 
organize  themselves  into  a  sort  of  secondary  anti-social 
personality.  She  can  know  the  children  under  her  care 
individually,  and  be  so  sympathetic  towards  them  that 
they  are  not  afraid  to  ask  her  questions  on  any  subject 
about  which  they  happen  to  be  curious,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  the  subject  raised  is  tabooed  by  convention. 
The  one  thing  she  must  not  do  is  to  encourage  premature 
morality.  At  first  she  must  rather  prevent  the  full  pressure 
of  convention  from  falling  too  heavily  and  too  suddenly 
on  the  sensitive,  developing  personality.  The  morahty 
of  a  civilized  community  must  not  be  imposed  on  the 
child  by  the  wholesale  suppression  of  his  natural  instincts. 
Rather  he  must  gradually  grow  into  it  by  facing  and 
solving  innumerable  conflicts.     If  this  course  is  followed, 

1  Vide  case  quoted  Chap.  I,  p.  34. 


I 


THE  MIND  OF  THE  CHILD  53 

there  will  be  less  danger  in  adult  life  of  a  secondary  im- 
moral personality  lurking  in  the  subterranean  passages 
of  the  unconscious,  and  consequently  there  will  be  greater 
vigour,  purposiveness,  and  consistency  of  conduct.  In 
this  way,  and  in  this  way  alone,  will  there  be  complete 
harmony  between  consciousness  and  the  vast  resources 
of  the  unconscious. 


PART  III 

EDUCATION  OF  THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL  CHILD 

By  Margaret  E.  Eggar 

Lecturer  in  Education,  Manchester  University 

AND  Grace  Owen,  B.Sc. 

Principal  of  the  Mather  Training  College,  Manchester 
CHAPTER  I 

THE  ENVIRONMENT 

IN  these  momentous  days  of  reconstruction,  when 
thinking  men  and  women  are  working  towards  the 
ideal  of  a  better  social  order,  founded  on  fellowship 
and  brotherhood,  the  nation  turns  to  its  children,  realizing 
that  the  beginning  of  brotherly  love  must  be  in  the  homes 
and  in  the  Nursery  Schools.  The  Nursery  School  has  an 
important  function  to  fulfil,  and  should  become  one  of 
the  great  humanizing  forces  in  the  country. 

Traditionalism  has  laid  its  iron  hand  both  on  elementary 
and  on  secondary  education.  In  the  establishment  of 
Nursery  Schools  the  nation  has  a  unique  opportunity 
to  break  through  harmful  tradition  and  to  make  a  fresh 
start,  by  bringing  the  education  of  its  children  into 
harmony  with  a  living  and  developing  philosophy  of  life. 

The  elementary  school  has  laid  too  much  stress  on  the 
value  of  information,  the  great  public  schools  on  preserving 
a  tradition,  the  newer  secondary  schools  on  preparing  for 
examinations.  Perhaps  the  Nursery  School  is  to  play  an 
important  part  in  educating  the  public  to  regard  the  school 
as  a  place  where  the  children  live  a  life  that  is  full  -of  • 
meaning  and  value  to  them,  here  and  now^ 

55 


56  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Religious  Influences 

How  to  approach  the  greatest  of  all  life's  experiences 
with  little  children  is  a  problem  that  exercises  the  mind 
and  heart  of  every  thoughtful  parent,  as  much  harm  can 
be  done  by  the  well-meaning  adult  who  cannot  distinguish 
between  outward  form  and  inward  spirit. 

For  its  highest  and  best  expression,  human  life  requires 
an  atmosphere  of  love  and  trust ;  our  Nursery  Schools 
must  therefore  radiate  love  and  trust.  "  Where  Love 
is,  God  is,"  says  Tolstoi,  To  the  happily  nurtured  little 
child  God  is  no  dread  Person.  He  is  accepted  quite 
naturally  and  simply  as  an  unseen  Helper.  A  small  boy 
of  four  years  loved  to  work  in  his  garden.  When  asked 
one  day  if  he  had  been  alone,  he  answered,  "  Oh,  no  ! 
God  was  working  with  me." 

The  Nursery  School  will  need  the  short  morning  service 
of  praise  and  thanksgiving — if  only  that  the  little  com- 
munity may  realize,  however  dimly,  that  each  and  all  are 
members  one  of  the  other.  Little  direct  teaching  will  be 
wise  or  necessary  ;  but  the  devotional  attitude,  the  reverent 
silences,  the  simple  prayers  and  hymns  that  are  in  close 
relation  to  childish  experience,  will  afford  opportunity  for 
the  children  to  give  expression  to  their  religious  sense. 
For  the  rest,  the  whole  life  of  the  Nursery  School  will 
contribute  that  atmosphere  of  joy  and  happiness  that  is  a 
sure  and  abiding  sign  that  the  spirit  of  Love  is  brooding 
over  the  children,  of  whom  it  is  said,  "  Of  such  is  the 
Kingdom  of  Heaven." 


Nursery  School  Routine 

And  how  will  the  five  or  six  hours  of  the  day  be  spent 
in  the  Nursery  School  ?  What  childish  interests  will  find 
satisfaction  here  ?  Will  a  scheme  of  those  interests  be  a 
help  or  the  reverse  ?  Will  a  time-table  be  necessary  ? 
These  are  some  of  the  questions  for  which  satisfactory 
answers  must  be  found. 

Every  one  recognizes  the  value  and  importance  of  routine 


EDUCATION  OF  NURSERY  CHILDREN  57 

in  nursery  life.  It  tends  to  create  that  condition  of  serenity, 
order,  and  peace  that  is  of  such  inestimable  worth  in  the 
early  years  of  life.  In  every  child's  day  there  should  be 
certain  fixed  points,  and  in  the  Nursery  School  these  are 
the  times  for  meals  and  for  sleep  ;  the  rest  of  the  day  should 
be  free  from  the  tyranny  of  the  clock. 

Probably  the  Nursery  School  will  open  a  little  before 
nine  o'clock  to  allow  older  brothers  or  sisters  to  leave  the 
little  ones  on  their  way  to  school.  After  the  removal  of 
outdoor  clothes,  and  attention  to  personal  hygiene,  there 
are  pets  to  tend,  flowers  to  arrange,  and  certain  domestic 
duties  to  perform.  Sweeping  and  dusting  should  hardly 
be  necessary  at  this  time  in  the  morning  in  a  well-kept 
Nursery  School.  The  morning  gathering  will  follow. 
The  children  will  bring  their  little  chairs  to  form  a  circle, 
and  before  the  simple  service  of  praise  and  thanksgiving 
begins,  an  opportunity  will  be  given  for  the  children  to 
suggest  any  special  subjects  for  prayer  or  praise. 

The  service  ended,  the  attendance  is  recorded,  an  exercise . 
much  looked  forward  to  by  little  children,  perhaps  because 
the  calling  over  the  names  every  m.orning  helps  each  child 
to  feel  his  membership,  for  every  one  is  remembered,  even 
the  absent  ones.  The  children's  birthdays  may  be  cele- 
brated by  the  singing  of  a  special  song  in  honour  of  the 
birthday  king  or  queen.  A  Morning  Talk  will  follow. 
This  can  be  one  of  the  happiest  periods  of  the  day  ;  if  it  is 
so,  it  is  a  sure  proof  that  the  right  spirit  of  friendliness 
reigns. 

There  will  be  the  courteous  greeting  songs,  when  the 
children  will  wish  each  other  good  morning  and  extend  a 
welcome  to  any  newcomer.  And  there  will  be  the  fun  of  either 
hearing  or  telling  what  has  happened  since  the  day  before. 
In  an  atmosphere  of  sympathy  and  understanding  there 
will  be  much  to  share.  This  is  the  time  for  introducing 
any  fresh  topic  of  living  interest.  Formal  conversation 
lessons  or  picture  talks  will  have  no  place.  A  picture — 
carefully  selected — may  often  be  shown  for  the  purpose 
of  crystallizing  happy  impressions  or  counteracting  harmful 
ones,  but  it  should  not  be  subjected  to  formal  analysis 


58  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

through  questions  and  answers.  Little  children  rarely 
want  to  discuss  a  picture  until  they  have  lived  with  it  for 
a  time.  Froebel's  "  Mother-Play  Book,"  in  spite  of  its 
quaintness,  is  full  of  suggestions  for  the  wise  use  of  pictures 
with  little  children. 

The  morning  circle  will  be  followed  by  a  period  of  free 
play  with  toys,  or  possibly  the  Montessori  apparatus, 
indoors  or  in  the  garden,  until  the  mid-morning  break 
for  milk  and  biscuits.  The  preparation  for  this,  the 
social  meal,  and  the  clearing  away  and  washing  up 
afterwards,  are  all  valuable  features  in  the  daily 
routine.  In  some  Nursery  Schools  the  children  stay 
for  dinner,  and  it  would  be  well  if  facilities  for  this 
were  provided  in  every  case.  The  opportunity  it  gives 
for  social  service  and  social  intercourse  is  too  valuable 
to  be  lost,  though  naturally  the  meal  would  only  be  for 
those  whose  parents  wished  them  to  stay.  The  excite- 
ment and  bustle  of  preparing  to  go  to  school  twice  in  a  day 
may  easily  be  too  great  a  strain  for  little  children,  and  the 
longer  period  under  one  control  prove  a  wiser  course  to 
follow. 

These  practical  activities  will  take  up  a  good  deal  of  time, 
but  every  child  will  not  be  engaged  in  this  work  every  day  ; 
it  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  young  children 
need  constant  practice  while  habits  are  being  formed. 

The  last  period  of  the  morning  will  be  devoted  to  games 
and  some  quiet  activity,  as  for  example  a  story,  painting, 
drawing,  modelling,  or  play  with  toys.  In  the  afternoon, 
after  sleep,  there  will  be  another  short  period  for  free 
play  before  the  day  ends  with  its  good-bye  song. 

This  general  sketch  of  a  day's  work  and  play  leads  to 
the  consideration  of  the  advisability  of  emphasizing  some 
sequence  of  interests.  Any  rigid  scheme  or  plan  for  the 
day  or  week  is  foreign  to  the  whole  spirit  of  childhood. 
The  irresponsible  gaiety  of  the  happy  child  must  on  no 
account  be  repressed  by  any  hard-and-fast  system ; 
elasticity,  adaptability,  and  a  readiness  to  enter  whole- 
heartedly into  the  fun  of  the  passing  moment  should 
characterize   the  grown-up  playfellows  of  little  children, 


EDUCATION  OF  NURSERY  CHILDREN      59 

And  yet  some  childish  interests  are  so  general  that  to  ignore 
them  would  be  to  let  the  children  miss  much  gladness  in 
their  daily  life.  The  main  interests  of  a  little  child — as  of 
all  mankind — are  the  world  of  Nature  and  the  world  of 
men  around  him.  No  child  comes  into  contact  with  more 
than  a  tiny  bit  of  each.  The  task  of  the  Nursery  School 
superintendent  is  to  begin  with  what  is  familiar  to  her  par- 
ticular children,  and  to  make  this  the  starting-point  for 
wider  interests.  No  lover  of  her  children  would  want  to 
follow  slavishly  another's  scheme.  Each  Nursery  School  has 
its  special  problems  and  special  interests.  These  will  form, 
as  it  were,  a  background  to  the  varied  and  many  activities 
of  the  week  or  month.  The  children  in  imaginative  play 
or  constructive  work  will  thus  enter  into  the  life  of  the 
world  outside  school,  and  gradually,  through  action  made 
richer  in  meaning  by  the  help  of  illustrative  visits,  talks, 
pictures,  and  stories,  experience  something  of  the  unity 
of  life. 

Nature 

There  will  be  no  set  lessons,  but  the  children  will  live  as 
far  as  possible  with  nature.  School  pets,  as  is  well  recog- 
nized, either  as  residents  or  visitors,  give  children  much 
valuable  experience.  In  one  play-garden  there  lived 
rabbits,  guinea-pigs,  a  dormouse,  snails,  silk-worms  and 
other  caterpillars,  and  all  were  tended  by  the  children. 
Keeping  of  pets  means  much  careful  supervision  by 
grown-up  helpers  lest  the  pets  should  suffer  from  neglect. 
A  bird-bath  out  of  doors  helps  the  children  to  make 
many  friends.  Where  there  is  a  garden,  the  seasonal 
changes  gather  meaning  as  their  effects  are  watched  on  the 
familiar  trees  and  plants  ;  and  sunshine  and  cloud,  wind 
and  rain,  frost  and  snow,  are  all  connected  with  the  children's 
work.  Gathering  flowers  early  attracts  a  little  child. 
The  baby  of  two  will  gather  daisies  with  much  intentness, 
and  bring  them  as  an  offering  to  a  grown-up  friend.  A 
little  boy  whose  own  home  garden  was  so  beautifully  kept 
that  no  daisies  were  to  be  found  on  the  lawn,  looked  over 


■r 


60  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

into  the  next-door  garden,  where  daisies  were  allowed  to 
grow,  and  said  with  intense  feeling,  "  It  would  be  my 
bestest  treat  to  come  into  your  garden."  The  temptation 
to  gather  promiscuously  will  gradually  be  controlled. 
Arranging  flowers  in  water  will  be  a  helpful  check  until  the 
children  learn  to  enjoy  without  plucking. 

When  the  child  is  old  enough  to  leave  the  Nursery  School 
he  should  have  made  friends  with  many  living  creatures, 
large  and  small ;  he  should  have  learned  to  notice  and  to 
question  what  he  does  not  understand,  and  to  have  some 
dim  presentiment  of  the  wonder,  beauty,  and  mystery  of 
living  things,  and  of  the  part  he  can  play  in  caring  for  them. 

Stories 

Dr.  Montessori  has  been  severely  criticized  for  her 
strictures  on  stories.  This  country,  so  rich  in  child  litera- 
ture— ^Nursery  Rhymes  and  Jingles,  Nursery  Tales  and 
Folk  Tales — beloved  by  so  many  generations  of  children, 
finds  it  difficult  to  appreciate  her  point  of  view.  Most 
would  agree  that  there  are  few  children  between  four  and 
six  years  of  age  who  do  not  love  a  story,  though  they  do 
not,  by  any  means,  always  care  for  those  told  to  them, 
and  if  perfectly  free  to  wander  away  would  often  leave 
the  story-teller  with  few  listeners,  A  story,  to  a  little 
child,  is  an  intimate  experience — he  wants  to  be  quite 
close  to  the  one  telling  the  story,  that  he  may  lose  none 
of  those  vivid  touches  given  by  gesture,  intonation,  or  facial 
expression  that  help  to  make  the  whole  story  live.  He 
needs  to  be  near  that  he  may  feel  with  all  its  intensity 
that  quick  sympathy  which  passes  from  the  true  story- 
teller to  her  audience,  for  he  understands  not  from  words 
alone.  Much  can  be  learnt  by  taking  note  of  the  stories 
children  tell  their  dolls  or  their  younger  brothers  or  sisters. 
A  story  for  little  children  must  be  brief — a  mere  outline  ; 
it  must  be  full  of  action,  and  the  actions  must  follow  one 
another  in  swift  succession.  Description  must  be  of  the 
briefest,  and  the  sentences  short  and  brisk.  Every  child 
should  have  a  sure  foundation  of  Nursery  Rhyme  and 


EDUCATION  OF  NURSERY  CHILDREN      61 

Jingle.  These  should  be  known  by  heart  through  constant 
repetition.  Babies  of  two  years  find  immense  satisfaction 
in  pacing  round  the  garden  or  nursery  declaiming  "  Baa- 
baa,  black  sheep,"  or  "  Little  Boy  Blue."  Some  of  Walter 
de  la  Mare's  poems  in  "  Peacock  Pie  "^  have  been  a  source 
of  joy  to  a  little  boy  of  three  years.  He  has  laughed  with 
delicious  merriment  over  "  Three  Jolly  Horsemen." 
Only  the  best  is  good  enough  for  children  ;  the  wordy  stories 
of  many  children's  books  fetter  the  imagination  and  weary 
the  spirit. 

Some  children  are  born  story-tellers — if  so,  they  can 
give  great  pleasure  to  others.  One  small  boy  of  four 
years  could  tell  the  story  of  the  "  Three  Bears  "  with  so 
much  fun  and  movement,  bringing  out  all  the  points  with 
unfailing  skill,  that  a  large  class  of  thirty  children  was  held 
in  gleeful  attention  until  the  last  word.  More  could  be 
done  in  allowing  the  children  choice  of  story-teller  and 
story.  Nursery  School  children  do  not  want  a  great  variety 
of  stories  ;  they  like  to  hear  the  favourites  over  and  over 
again.  And  this  is  well,  for  gradually  the  phrases  and 
words  become  part  of  their  vocabulary  and  the  children 
gain  a  greater  command  of  their  mother  tongue. 

Many  of  the  so-called  Nature  stories  are  most  unsuitable ; 
their  purpose  is  to  give  information  under  the  guise  of  a 
story — a  thing  always  resented  by  a  child.  But  Beatrix 
Potter,  2  in  her  inimitable  series,  has  brought  countless 
happy  hours  to  many  children  and  enlarged  their  sympathy 
with  the  animal  world.  Maud  Lindsay,  in  her  "  Mother 
Stories  "  and  "  More  Mother  Stories,"^  is  close  to  a  child's 
interests.  "Alice  in  Wonderland"  may  not  be  beyond 
the  intelligent  child  of  five  years,  but  to  introduce  it  too 
soon  is  to  rob  a  later  stage  of  its  rightful  joys.  "  A  Child's 
Bookshelf,"  compiled  by  Lilian  Stevenson,^  gives  much 
valuable  help  on  good  sources  for  children's  stories. 

Bible  stories  are  loved  by  little  children  if  sufficient  care 
is  taken  in  the  selection.  The  vividness  of  the  imagery, 
the  poetic  beauty  of  the  language,  their  concreteness, 

^  Constable  &  Co.  ^  Fred.  Warne  &  Co.         ^  Harrap  &  Co. 

*  Student  Christian  Movement,  Chancery  Lane,  London. 


62  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

and  dramatic  simplicity  combine  to  win  for  the  Bible 
story  a  very  special  place  in  the  affection  of  little  children. 
But  the  way  in  which  they  are  first  presented  is  of  supreme 
importance.  Many  books  published  for  workers  in  reformed 
Sunday  schools  give  helpful  guidance  in  selection  and  treat- 
ment, and  others,  such  as  Mrs.  Houghton's  "  Telling  Bible 
Stories,"  ^  suggest  ways  of  using  what  she  calls  "  The 
Morning  Stories."  It  is  well  from  the  very  beginning  to 
introduce  the  actual  words  of  the  Bible.  Little  children 
seldom  ask  for  explanations  or  interpretations,  and  until 
they  do  it  would  seem  true  wisdom  to  read  or  tell  without 
comment.  Sometimes  they  will  spontaneously  dramatize 
their  Bible  stories.  On  these  occasions  it  would  seem  best 
to  stand  aside,  lest  one  should  mar  through  mistaken 
interference  what  would  otherwise  have  been  a  reverent 
representation. 

The  whole  question  of  dramatization  of  stories  is  one 
of  some  importance.  Joyous,  immediate  representation 
is  often  full  of  childish  delight,  as,  for  example,  when  a 
little  child  of  three  or  four  years  represents  ' '  Little  Miss 
Muffet,"  or  "  Jack  Horner,"  but  the  effort  to  remember 
longer  stories  is  sometimes  too  great.  When  much  prompt- 
ing and  suggestion  is  needed,  it  is  probably  a  proof  that 
the  story  is  not  a  suitable  one  for  such  young  children  to 
dramatize. 


Difficult  Days 

Stories,  friendly  talks,  nature  work,  games  and  play, 
together  with  the  practical  activities  of  daily  life,  are  all 
so  many  ways  by  which  the  children  may  enter  into  their 
kingdom.  Has  the  story  of  "  Pandora,"  then,  no  meaning 
for  Nursery  School  workers  ?  Are  there  no  troubles  and 
difficulties  of  character  and  temper  encountered  in  the 
Nursery  School  ?  Every  one  knows  that  there  are  refrac- 
tory days  in  the  life  of  all  children  when  the  things  they 
ought  to  do  will  not  be  those  they  want  to  do.     Little 

^  Macmillan. 


c 
EDUCATION   OF   NURSERY   CHILDREN    63 

children   are   very  sensitive   to  weather  and  to   human 
atmosphere — to  physical  well-being  or  the  reverse. 

All  have  not  the  advantage  of  a  good  heredity,  a  happy 
home,  or  a  healthy  body,  and  already,  by  the  third  year, 
undesirable  impulses  may  have  asserted  themselves, 
aggravated  perhaps  by  ignorant  indulgence  or  thoughtless 
neglect.  The  patience  and  absolute  justice  of  those  in 
charge,  the  free  and  happy  environment,  the  approval  or 
disapproval  of  comrades  of  their  own  age,  and  the  oppor- 
tunities for  suitable  activities,  will  soon  enable  the  healthy 
child  to  fit  in  to  the  daily  routine.  It  is  well  to  recognize 
that  some  of  the  so-called  naughty  deeds  of  children  are 
the  outcome  of  a  spirit  of  pure  fun,  and  must  be  treated  in 
that  spirit.  By  careful  study  of  her  children,  the  superin- 
tendent will  learn  to  understand  the  motive  underlying 
the  action,  and  this  will  help  her  to  distinguish  clearly 
between  the  child  who  is  deliberately  anti-social  and  the 
one  who  is  troublesome  for  physical  or  other  reasons  he 
cannot  help.  The  principle  of  consulting  the  school 
doctor  in  cases  of  constant  naughtiness  is  a  sound  one. 
The  Nursery  School  worker  needs  unbounded  trust  in  the 
power  of  indirect  influence  in  the  formation  of  character, 
and  the  child  needs  continual  opportunity  to  practice  the 
art  of  being  neighbourly.  Thus  the  anti-social  impulses 
will  gradually  be  transformed  under  the  influence  of  count- 
less positive  acts  of  kindness  and  goodwill. 


CHAPTER    II 

THE  CHILD'S  RESPONSE— 

(a)  Exercise  and  Imitation. 

THE  education  of  Nursery  School  children  has  so 
far  been  considered  mainly  with  regard  to  the 
mental  environment  for  which  it  calls. 

Let  us  now  turn  to  the  opposite  aspect  of  education — 
the  child's  response  ;  that  is,  the  working  of  his  own  active 
impulses  in  relation  to  his  environment. 

It  will  be  useful  to  recall  at  this  point  that  a  child's 
spontaneous  activities  may  be  roughly  grouped  in  the 
following  way  :  Those  which  consist  merely  in  exercising 
his  physical  and  mental  powers,  and  involve  a  constant 
repetition  of  what  is  found  to  be  pleasurable.  In  such 
activities  speech  and  organized  movement  take  their  rise. 

Second,  the  simple  imitative  activities.  Direct  imitations 
of  sounds  and  movements  have  a  double  effect  on  the  child. 
He  makes  discoveries  as  to  his  own  capacities,  and  he 
realizes  more  vividly  the  objects  of  imitation.  Through 
imitative  activities  he  assimilates  his  environment  and 
masters  his  powers  in  relation  to  it.  As  a  result,  he 
achieves  a  higher  level  of  activity. 

Thus,  thirdly,  accumulated  experience,  increasing  skill, 
and  developing  imagination  make  possible  true  creative 
expression.  The  child  may  now  produce  something  not 
directly  and  entirely  derived  from  his  environment,  but 
something  new  to  himself,  something  that  expresses  his 
individuality. 

The  function  of  the  Nursery  School  is  to  give  ample 

64 


EDUCATION  OF  NURSERY  CHILDREN      C5 

opportunity  for  the  child  to.  develop  his  spontaneous 
activities  on  natural  lines,  to  guard  against  the  formation 
of  undesirable  habits,  and  to  reverence  and  foster  every 
true  manifestation  of  individuality. 

At  the  present  time,  many  of  those  who  are  concerned 
in  the  education  of  little  children  would  seem  to  be  confused 
between  their  sense  of  the  importance  of  helping  the  child 
to  form  the  best  kind  of  physical  and  mental  habits  from 
the  beginning,  and  their  desire  of  giving  him  unhampered 
freedom  of  individual  development  during  his  earliest 
years.  In  their  educational  practice,  teachers  and  parents 
may  be  seen  to  waver  between  the  desire  to  use  a  scientific 
method,  such  as  that  illustrated  by  the  Montessori 
apparatus,  and  a  comdctjon  that  nature  unassisted  can 
afford  the  child  all  the  training  that  he  needs  in  the  use 
of  his  senses,  his  speech-organs,  and  all  his  physical  and 
mental  powers.  It  is  felt  that  if  the  latter  view  be  right, 
ail  formal  exercises  in  early  childhood  are  entirely  unsuit- 
able, even  if  enjoyable — the  child  should  not  be  invited 
to  exercise  himself  for  specific  purposes,  as  Dr.  Montessori 
advocates.  On  the  other  hand,  it  cannot  be  denied  that 
bad  habits  are  frequently  formed  during  these  years,  long 
before  the  intelligence  of  the  child  can  be  brought  to  bear 
upon  them,  and  that  these  are  of  a  tenacious  character, 
involving  strenuous  effort  to  overcome  at  some  later 
period. 

It  is  important  that  all  who  are  preparing  to  take  part 
in  the  education  of  the  child  of  Nursery  School  age  should 
arrive  at  som^  clear  solution  of  this  problem. 

We  know  that  the  age  from  two  to  six  years  is  one  of  rapid 
growth  and  co-ordination  of  the  muscles,  effecting  amongst 
other  things  the  control  of  the  hand,  the  adjustment  of  the 
eye,  the  poise  of  the  body,  and  the  use  of  the  organs  of 
speech  and  hearing.  It  is  also  the  time  when  the  child 
is  learning  to  bring  all  his  senses  to  bear  upon  increasingly 
wider  fields  of  experience,  with  increasing  power  of  dis- 
crimination. 

His  obvious  need  is  for  constant  opportunity  to  exercise 
himself  freely,  so  that  complete  co-ordination  of  various 
5 


66  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

kinds  shall  take  place,  and  the  impulse  to  discriminate 
be  strengthened  till  it  becomes  a  habit.  On  the  other 
hand  it  is  of  importance  that  the  physiological  habits  thus 
formed  shall  make  for  economy  of  energy  and  efficiency  in 
all  directions.  While  he  is  "making  himself,"  as  it  were, 
by  exercise  and  imitation,  he  calls  for  an  environment 
favourable  to  the  perfecting  of  the  needed  adjustments. 
We  return  then  to  the  question  :  Should  this  environment 
be  a  special  one  ?  It  is  submitted  that  this  is  still  a  matter 
for  experiment,  and  that  experiments  are  desirable. 

Given  a  faithful  adherence  to  the  principle  of  self-educa- 
tion— and  remembering  that  the  business  of  the  educator 
is  to  offer  opportunities,  not  to  force  the  child  to  accept 
them — there  can  be  no  harm  and  there  may  be  much  good 
to  be  derived  from  the  provision  of  apparatus  and  suitable 
exercises  designed  for  specific  educational  purposes. 

The  Montessori  Apparatus 

There  is  much  in  the  Montessori  method  that  bears 
directly  on  the  matter  here  discussed. 

The  apparatus  offers  to  the  child  many-sided  oppor- 
tunity. Each  piece  of  apparatus — provided  it  attracts  him 
— induces  repeated  acts  of  discrimination  and  involves 
co-ordination  of  various  kinds. 

The  actual  effectiveness  of  this  training  in  any  particular 
case  depends  on  the  intrinsic  attractiveness  of  each  piece 
of  apparatus,  and  the  strength  of  the  child's  impulse  to 
imitate  and  repeat.  Again,  as  an  all-round  training,  it 
depends  on  how  far  the  whole  of  the  apparatus  possesses 
a  universal  appeal  for  all  children.  Evidence  on  these 
points  is  so  far  conflicting  ;  but  many  consider  it  established 
that  apparatus,  the  active  use  of  which  involves  various 
exercises  in  sense  discrimination,  may  have  enormous 
attraction  for  the  very  young  child,  because  it  satisfies 
strong  native  impulses.  He  will  readily  and  spontaneously 
imitate  exactly  the  method  of  use  shown  him  and  repeat 
the  action,  with  the  result  that  his  power  of  concentration 
is  increased,  and  muscular  control  improved. 


EDUCATION  OF  NURSERY  CHILDREN      67 

In  the  Nursery  School  we  have  an  excellent  opportunity 
of  testing  the  value  of  apparatus  for  very  young  children 
devised  on  the  principles  underlying  that  of  Dr.  Montessori. 
We  probably  have  a  better  opportunity  than  in  the  infant 
school  or  kindergarten,  because  we  have  the  children 
from  the  age  of  two.  The  Montessori  apparatus  is  emi- 
nently suited  for  the  period  of  child-life  when  the  motive 
of  activity  is  pleasure  in  the  activity  itself  without  reference 
to  an  end,  although  its  use  develops  a  sense  of  purpose. 

The  result  of  such  pleasurable  activity  is  chiefly  the 
acquirement  of  sense  experience  and  the  formation  of 
desirable  physiological  habits,  and  belongs  to  the  period 
when  the  child  is  not  yet  ready  to  create  or  to  express  ideas 
in  more  than  a  rudimentary  manner.  This  stage  coincides 
with  the  first  years  of  the  Nursery  School.  Some  of  the 
apparatus  is  very  distinctly  just  one  step  beyond  pure 
baby  play — for  example,  the  sound  boxes  are  the  baby's 
rattle  elevated  to  convey  not  merely  attractive  noise, 
but  contrasting  noises.  The  piling  up  of  cubes  in  the 
steadiest  possible  position  is  only  a  step  beyond  the  joy 
of  piling  bricks  indiscriminately  and  immediately  knocking 
them  down.  Accordingly,  at  different  times,  we  may  show 
even  our  youngest  children  in  the  Nursery  School  the 
Montessori  cylinders,  the  cubes,  the  buttoning  frames, 
the  sound  boxes,  the  rough  and  smooth  boards,  even  the 
wooden  insets  in  their  frames.  We  may  introduce  them,  as 
Dr.  Montessori  advises,  by  demonstrating  carefully  how 
each  piece  of  apparatus  is  used,  and  then  we  can  watch 
to  see  whether  the  child  is  prompted  to  imitate  and  repeat 
the  activity.  If  he  does,  it  will  be  worth  while  to  record 
his  mastery  of  each  exercise  and  his  growth  in  control, 
speed,  and  efficiency.  If  not,  we  can  afford  to  wait,  and 
indeed  must  not  interfere  ;  for  if  a  genuine  spontaneous 
response  does  not  take  place,  the  use  of  the  apparatus 
becomes  a  formal  training  of  the  worst  type. 

Further  valuable  training  in  sense  discrimination  will 
be  received  a  little  later,  when  the  children  can  delight  in 
matching  one  thing  with  another  and  arranging  things 
in  order. 


68  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Here  the  prepared  apparatus  is  helpful  because  its 
striking  characteristics  and  simple  proportions  are  a  stimulus 
to  the  child  to  begin  setting  it  in  order — in  the  most 
obviously  attractive  and  easy  ways.  Wlien  he  has  been 
shown  how  to  do  it,  he  likes  to  arrange  the  oblong  bricks 
so  as  to  make  a  flight  of  stairs,  to  place  the  rods  in  order 
of  length,  to  match  a  coloured  tablet  with  a  coloured 
tablet,  and  later  to  arrange  the  shades  of  colour  in  order 
from  dark  to  light  and  so  on.  This  kind  of  activity  suits 
him,  because  he  has  not  yet  had  experiences  of  life  that 
he  can  reconstruct  in  imagination  and  that  he  wants  to 
express  again.  Soon,  however,  we  shall  find  that  instead 
of  arranging  the  bricks  to  make  a  stair,  he  arranges  them 
to  make,  perhaps,  a  steam  engine ;  the  rods  he  discovers 
make  admirable  railway  lines,  the  cubes  a  fine  station. 
What  does  this  mean  ?  Surely  that  the  child  is  now 
imaging  experiences  and  learning  to  express  ideas  through 
what  he  does.  He  has  now  either  exhausted  the  value 
of  this  piece  of  apparatus,  or  has  passed  the  stage  when  it 
can  benefit  him.  Nevertheless,  the  habit  of  attending 
and  discriminating  carefully  in  many  directions,  his  growth 
in  precision  and  in  the  handling  of  objects  according 
to  his  will,  have  made  his  body  and  mind  so  much  the 
better  an  instrument  for  creative  expression. 

Speech  Habits 

Closely  connected  with  this  training  in  muscular  control 
and  sense  discrimination  is  the  question  of  the  formation 
of  good  speech  habits. 

The  Nursery  School  has  an  opportunity  here  which  is 
worth  a  great  deal  of  study.  The  period  between  two  and 
six  years  of  age  is  the  time  when  help  can  most  effectively 
be  given  to  the  little  child  towards  developing  habits  of 
pure  intonation  and  clear  enunciation.  What  can  be  done 
to  help  him  ?  First,  the  fundamental  conditions  of  free 
and  healthy  habits  of  speech  must  be  kept  in  view. 

These  are :  (i)  Frequent  opportunity  for  physical 
activity    in    the    open    air.     This    will    ensure    natural 


EDUCATION    OF   NURSERY    CHILDREN     69 

healthy  breathing.  (3)  Clear  nasal  passages.  Given 
these  elementary  conditions,  the  problem  is  one  of  providing 
the  child  with  the  right  sound  experiences  on  the  one  hand, 
and  giving  him  opportunity  to  imitate  freely  and  exactly 
on  the  other. 

Before  he  can  talk  the  child  shows  his  sensitiveness  to 
sounds,  and  his  readiness  to  listen.  The  grown-up  person, 
with  his  mind  full  of  images  and  thoughts,  is  constantly 
brought  up  short  by  his  child  companion,  who  calls  his  atten- 
tion to  all  sorts  of  sounds  that  he  would  never  have  heard 
otherwise.  We  cannot  but  suppose,  therefore,  that  the 
child  is  influenced  by  the  character  of  the  sounds  he  con- 
stantly hears.  Growing  up  amidst  the  noisy  traffic  of 
modern  life,  he  is  incalculably  handicapped  in  this  respect. 
Yet,  on  the  other  hand,  it  must  be  remembered  that  every 
little  bit  of  beauty  introduced  to  him  is  the  more  striking 
by  its  contrast  with  his  normal  experience.  Therefore 
it  is  worth  while  to  give  him  beautiful  sound  experiences, 
such  as  the  song  of  a  robin,  the  wind  in  the  trees,  or  a 
beautiful  human  voice. 

Again,  the  child's  speech  is  undoubtedly  greatly  affected 
by  the  way  in  which  his  eager  efforts  to  learn  are  met  by 
grown-up  people.  As  a  baby,  before  he  can  come  to  the 
Nursery  School,  he  has  been  gradually  adding  to  his 
vocabulary  by  definite  effort.  He  likes  to  name  more 
and  more  things,  and  his  mother  likes  to  repeat  the  names 
for  him.  Her  clear  enunciation  and  pure  intonation  are 
of  importance  to  him  then ;  he  imitates  her,  and  hers  is 
the  strongest  influence  on  his  speech  habits.  But  during 
the  Nursery  School  period  the  little  child  is  still  learning 
to  speak,  learning  names,  and  learning  the  use  of  language. 
We  can  help  him  : 

(i)  By  clear  naming  and  repeated  naming,  encouraging 
his  spontaneous  imitations. 

{2)  By  always  speaking  slowly,  distinctly,  and  with 
pure  intonation,  whether  in  conversation  or  story. 

{3)     By  definite  correction  of  defects. 

The  majority  of  children  in  our  Nursery  Schools  need 
positive  training  to  counteract  an  unfavourable  speech 


70  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

environment  at  home.  They  may  even  need  correction 
of  defects  in  speech,  young  as  they  are.  Miss  Margaret 
McMillan,  in  her  chapter  on  "Economics  and  Waste"  in 
"The  Camp  School, "^  tells  how  this  situation  can  be 
met  by  individual  help  and  definite  repeated  practice  in 
careful  speaking. 

In  ways  of  this  kind  we  may  help  the  child  at  a  time 
when  he  is  making  the  first  tenacious  habits  of  speech, 
and  do  something  at  least  to  forestall  and  remedy  defect. 

Rhythm 

Education  in  rhythm  is  coming  to  be  recognized  as  of 
fundamental  importance  in  human  development.  The 
work  of  Mr.  Jacques  Dalcroze  has  awakened  teachers  to 
this,  and  has  led  them  to  ask  what  is  the  relation  of  his 
gospel  to  the  ordinary  child  going  through  his  ordinary 
school  life. 

In  the  Nursery  School  there  is  fortunately  no  possibility 
of  applying  any  system  of  training  wholesale.  But  we 
have  to  consider  all  the  more  carefully  what  is  the  meaning 
of  the  whole  idea,  and  what  is  its  particular  significance 
for  the  early  years  of  life. 

For  the  physical  well-being  of  the  young  child  we  are 
well  assured  of  the  need  of  rhythmical  order  in  his  life. 
Alternating  periods  of  sleep  and  activity,  food  and  fasting, 
the  matters  of  personal  hygiene,  the  daily  bath  and  other 
healthful  habits,  depend  for  their  effectiveness  largely  on 
the  regularity  of  their  performance.  The  child's  physical 
nature  calls  for  this,  and  the  Nursery  SchooFs  function  is 
to  co-operate  with  the  home  in  carrying  it  out.  It  is 
indeed  generally  recognized  that  the  much  valued  atmos- 
phere of  peace  and  cheerfulness  found  in  every  good 
Nursery  School  and  home  depends  largely  on  the  rhythm 
of  the  daily  round. 

It  is  seen,  also,  that  very  early  in  life  the  child  responds 
to  rhythmical  sound  and  movement  by  unmistakable 
signs  of  pleasure  and  spontaneous  imitation.    The  baby 

^  "  The  Camp  School,"  pubUshed  by  George  Allen  &  Unwin. 


EDUCATION   OF   NURSERY   CHILDREN    71 

listens  with  rapt  attention  to  the  ticking  of  a  watch ;  he 
laughs  and  crows  when  tossed  up  and  down  ;  and  he  is 
soothed  by  swinging  and  rocking  and  cradle  songs  ;  later, 
he  will  move  his  body,  feet,  arms,  legs  in  harmony  with  a 
musical  rhythm.  Surely  it  is  for  modern  education  to 
prove  whether  a  more  widespread  thirst  for  beauty,  and  a 
finer  sensitiveness  than  has  hitherto  been  thought  possible, 
would  not  follow  from  a  more  careful  fostering  of  the 
beginnings  of  appreciation  seen  in  every  little  child. 

The  perfected  habit  of  listening  lies  at  the  base  of  true 
expression.  We  know  that  every  young  child  of  Nursery 
School  age  is  on  the  one  hand  irresistibly  attracted  by 
sound,  but  on  the  other  he  lacks  the  power  of  sustained 
attention.  The  growth  of  the  habit  of  listening  involves 
the  gradual  increase  of  both  power  and  will  to  attend 
continuously  to  sounds  heard.  It  means  a  self-control 
of  both  body  and  mind  that  is  of  far-reaching  importance. 

Dr.  Montessori  touches  these  facts  in  her  Silence  game, 
through  which  she  has  established  an  early  step  in  training 
a  child  to  listen.  She  has  gained  evidence  of  the  normal 
child's  delight  in  exercising  his  power  to  inhibit  irrelevant 
noises  made  by  himself  in  order  to  hear  another's  voice 
with  perfect  clearness.  Her  children  also  bear  witness 
to  the  repose  of  feeling  which  such  exercises  may  eventually 
engender,  provided  that  silence  is  produced,  not  by  the 
tense,  conscious  inhibition  of  movements  by  each  child, 
but  through  the  complete  relaxation  of  hands,  feet,  and 
body. 

It  is  important  to  notice  that,  though  the  power  to  be 
silent  and  motionless  at  times  is  an  essential  condition 
in  the  perfect  listener,  the  little  child  does  not  develop  his 
powers  of  listening  through  continued  immobility.  On 
the  contrary,  one  may  expect  to  find  that  the  child  who 
takes  delight  in  the  Montessori  Silence  game  will  be  one  of 
the  first  to  begin  to  move  body,  hands,  or  feet  in  harmony 
with  sounds  or  musical  tunes  of  well-marked  rhythm,  and 
to  imitate  the  sounds  himself. 

Thus  he  spontaneously  makes  the  rhythm  his  own,  learns 
it,  as  it  were,  through  his  own  body.     Gradually  he  may 


72  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

acquire  a  rich  experience  of  tone  and  rhythm  through  his 
growing  abihty  to  listen,  receive,  and  assimilate  through 
bodily  movement  and  imitation.  During  the  Nursery 
School  period  this  aspect  of  growth  should  be  remembered. 
The  children's  helpers  are  responsible  for  two  things  : 

1.  To  provide  favourable  conditions  for  the  possible 
development  of  sensitiveness  to  rhythm,  e.g.  by  short 
periods  of  quietness,  by  silence  games,  by  quiet  oppor- 
tunities for  listening  to  simple,  good  music,  both  sung 
and  played  on  an  instrument,  by  giving  frequently  phrases 
for  imitation,  by  encouraging  rhythmical  actions  to  music — 
e.g.  the  imitating  of  a  swinging  hammer,  or  scythe,  or  the 
sawing  of  wood — by  helping  the  children  to  sing,  and  by 
letting  them  play  on  simple  instruments,  such  as  drums, 
cymbals,  etc.  In  this  connexion  also  the  repetition  of 
nursery  rhymes  and  jingles  is  invaluable,  for  the  appeal 
lies  more  in  the  sound  than  the  sense. 

2.  To  guard  against  nerve  strain.  While  the  children 
are  healthier  and  more  reposeful  for  such  congenial,  simple 
exercises,  it  must  be  recognized  that  strain  and  fatigue 
are  very  easily  induced  by  too  prolonged  concentration, 
and  in  this  case  the  whole  purpose  is  completely  defeated. 
As  in  all  Nursery  School  activities,  definite  aims  must  be 
pursued  incidentally,  and  the  particular  conditions  of  each 
child  met  each  day.  In  many  cases  it  may  be  found 
that  four  minutes  materially  help  the  child,  while  ten 
minutes  may  positively  harm  by  inducing  over-fatigue. 

The  superintendent  only  can  judge,  and  must  always 
act  as  the  occasion  demands  with  perfect  freedom. 

Poise  of  Body  and  Games  of  Skill 

The  free  physical  activity  of  the  little  child  should  bring 
about  not  only  growth  and  muscular  development,  but 
also  a  steady  increase  in  the  child's  power  to  use  and  con- 
trol his  bod3^  The  time  is  yet  distant  when  he  will  become 
conscious  of  the  need  of  self-control,  and  aim  at  acquiring 
it  ;  but  when  that  time  comes  he  should  find  himself 
ready,  as  it  were,  to  be  taken  possession  of  by  himself,. and 


EDUCATION   OF  NURSERY   CHILDREN      73 

not  with  a  tliousand  unfavourable  habits  to  break  off  and 
replace.  We  owe  it  to  him  to  give  him  the  opportunity 
of  repeated  experiences  which  will  in  themselves  con- 
stitute a  training,  not  against  his  nature,  but  in  harmony 
with  it. 

Thus,  for  example,  in  the  matter  of  poise  of  body  and  of 
the  precise  handling  of  things,  the  child  forms  habits  long 
before  the  time  when  he  should  receive  formal  training 
or  correction.  In  some  nurseries  it  is  evident  from  many 
signs  that  the  children's  energy  is  growing  rapidly,  but  is 
running  to  waste  because  there  is  nothing  in  the  circum- 
stances to  induce  a  real  control.  Here  again  the  Nursery 
School  has  much  to  learn  from  Dr.  Montessori  in  her  sugges- 
tions for  practical  exercises.  Then,  too,  the  presence  in  the 
play-room  or  garden  of  apparatus,  such  as  a  narrow  plank, 
a  safe  ladder,  and  a  rope  over  which  to  jump,  the  use  of 
which  involves  agility,  balance,  and  physical  skill,  gives 
the  children  valuable  opportunities  which  they  seldom  miss. 
Each  child  may  respond  differently  from  his  companions 
to  this  environment.  Uniform  development  should  not 
be  desired,  yet  no  child  should  lack  the  normal  stimulus 
and  opportunity  for  self-development. 

The  ball  games  of  the  kindergarten,  accompanied  by 
simple  songs,  constitute  joyous  activities  that  bring  the 
beginnings  of  bodily  control.  Valuable  also  are  simple 
imitative  games  which  entail  repeated  rhythmic  move- 
ments— such  as  the  well-known  "  Did  you  ever  see  a 
lassie  ...  go  this  way  and  that  ?  "  These  games  are 
suitable  for  the  youngest  children  because  they  require 
little  imagination,  and  while  demanding  a  certain  amount 
of  attention,  they  offer  opportunities  of  choice  of 
movement  to  the  leader  for  the  time  being. 


Finger  Plays 

It  was  Friedrich  Froebel  who  invited  parents  and  kinder- 
garten teachers  to  reflect  on  the  significance  of  the  little 
traditional  finger  plays  that  have  been  used  and  handed 


74  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

on  from  generation  to  generation  by  mothers  of  all  nations. 
Such  a  one  is  : 

"  Patter  cake,  patter  cake,  baker's  man. 
Make  me  a  cake  as  fast  as  you  can. 
Prick  it  and  stick  it  and  mark  it  with  T, 
And  put  it  in  the  oven  for  bab^  and  me. 
Patter  cake,  patter  cake,  baker's  man, 
Make  me  a  cake  as  fast  as  you  can." 

The  little  child  of  three  loves  to  make  his  hands  carry 
out  all  the  ideas  suggested  by  the  rhyme  in  imitation  of 
the  grown-up  person  who  sings  it  with  him. 

In  harmony  with  this  tradition,  the  kindergarten  teacher 
has  adopted  a  custom  of  singing  with  the  youngest  children 
numerous  finger  plays,  some  old,  some  modern.  The 
collection  by  Emilie  Poulsson  ^  is  known  all  over  England 
and  America.  If  a  little  child  is  attracted  and  delighted 
when  some  one  sings  to  him  these  little  plays  and  shows 
how  his  fingers  may  represent  them,  then  spontaneous 
imitation  follows,  and  he  carefully  suits  action  to  word, 
at  the  right  moment  making  his  fingers  obey  the  suggestion 
of  each  line. 

Thus,  when  the  children  hear  the  delightful  story  of 
"  Piggy- wig  and  Piggy-wee,"  who 

CUmbed  the  barn-yard  gate  to  see 
Dinner  waiting  not  far  off, 

and  subsequently  went  through  a  tragic  experience  owing 
to  their  greed  and  hurry,  they  will  take  earnest  pains  to 
make  the  unaccustomed  little  fingers  show  the  big  pig, 
the  little  pig,  the  barnyard  gate,  and  represent  the 
exciting  history  as  recounted  in  verse  after  verse. 

It  is  needless  to  urge  that,  without  the  initial  interest 
of  the  children,  finger  plays  are  completely  valueless  : 
as  mechanical  conformity  to  the  urgent  invitation  of  a 
teacher  they  are  nothing  but  sacrilege,  an  insult  to  child- 
hood and  the  traditional  play  of  mothers  with  their  children. 
As  true  baby-plays  they  have  their  place  both  at  home 
and  in  the  Nursery  School. 

^  Curwen  &  Co. 


CHAPTER   III 

THE    CHILD'S   RESPONSE— 

(b)    CREATIVE  EXPRESSION 

Dramatic  Play 

THE  little  child  of  two,  three,  or  four  years  enters 
the  Nursery  School  a  stranger,  unknown  to  the 
community  of  which  he  is  now  a  member.  So 
far,  home  and  its  interests  have  been  the  centre  of  his  life, 
and  from  the  famil}^  life  many  and  varied  experiences  have 
been  gained,  both  valuable  and  the  reverse.  How  to  help 
him  so  that  in  the  new  life  the  good  things  of  the  old  are 
not  forgotten,  but  enriched  and  made  the  starting-point 
of  further  life,  is  one  of  the  first  problems  of  the  Nursery 
School. 

The  little  newcomer  is  welcomed,  tut  all  direct  suggestion 
and  conscious  influence  is  withheld  until  the  strangeness 
of  the  surroundings  has  given  place  to  a  feeling  of  freedom, 
and  the  child  reveals  himself  in  play.  For  through  his 
play  much  may  be  learnt  of  the  influence  that  the  home  has 
already  brought  to  bear  on  his  life,  of  the  experiences  which 
have  left  the  most  vivid  impressions,and  of  the  things  which 
have  interested  him.  It  is  important  that  ample  opportu- 
nity should  be  allowed  for  the  child  to  re-live  his  actual 
experiences.  In  his  play,  whether  alone  or  with  the 
co-operation  of  others,  he  will  express  the  fullness,  or  it 
may  be  the  barrenness,  of  these  early  years. 

Every  experience,  however,  is  not  of  equal  value,  and  when 
the  children  come  from  a  neighbourhood  in  which  unde- 
sirable influences  are  at  work,  it  is  not  well  to  deepen  these 
impressions  b}^  allowing  the  children  to  dwell  thereon  in 

75 


76  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

representative  play.  And  it  is  here  that  those  in  charge 
can  come  forward  to  help  the  children  to  emphasize  in 
their  games  the  more  ideal  experiences  which  should  be 
the  heritage  of  a  happy  childhood.  There  are  some  who 
question  the  wisdom  of  interfering  in  a  child's  free  play, 
considering  that  organized  games  are  out  of  place  in  a 
Nursery  School  ;  but  in  this  connexion  it  is  well  to  bear 
in  mind  that  a  group  of  little  children  playing  together 
soon  feel  the  need  of  a  just  and  understanding  leader  to 
organize  their  play,  so  as  to  give  to  each  his  opportunity, 
and  to  suggest  fresh  fields  of  thought  and  action. 
Y"'"The  first  organized  plays  of  the  Nursery  School  will 
naturally  spring  from  the  home,  the  occupations  of  father, 
mother,  brothers,  and  sisters.  Such  homely  activities  as 
washing  and  ironing,  sweeping  and  dusting,  the  making 
of  bread,  the  shopping  expeditions,  the  visits  to  friends, 
the  receiving  of  visitors,  will  all  be  represented  in  imitative 
play.  Side  by  side  with  these  human  plays  there  will  be 
the  nature  plays  to  encourage  and  satisfy  the  child's 
natural  sympathy  with  and  interest  in  animal  and  plant 
life  ;  weather  games  also,  for  snow  and  rain,  frost  and 
sunshine,  are  experiences  too  universal  and  arresting  not 
to  be  made  one's  own.  In  all  these  the  guiding  principle 
must  be  that  the  game  follows  the  experience.  For 
Nursery  School  children  the  game  is  a  means  of  expression, 
and  the  more  creative  self-expression  is  revealed  the  greater 
is  the  educational  value  of  the  play. 

In  the  light  of  this  principle  let  us  consider  two  simple 
representative  games,  one  of  human  interest  and  the 
other  a  nature  game.  The  following  is  merely  a  suggestion 
of  how  they  might  be  introduced.  Bobby  comes  to  school 
one  morning,  beaming  with  pride  and  happiness,  bursting 
to  tell  some  important  news.  Soon  all  are  admiring  his 
new  shoes  and  listening  with  much  sympathy  and  interest 
to  how,  when,  and  where  they  were  bought.  Other 
children  tell  of  their  experiences  in  the  shoe  line,  and  all 
look  at  their  own  shoes,  and  are  led  to  think  of  the  people 
who  have  helped  to  make  them,  of  the  materials  and  tools 
used.     Has  anyone  been  to  a  shoemaker's  shop  ?     Mollie's 


EDUCATION   OF   NURSERY   CHILDREN      77 

father  mends  shoes.  Easily  and  naturally  the  suggestion 
comes,  "  Shall  we  play  at  being  shoemakers  ?  "  Then 
what  shall  we  want  ?  Leather,  nails,  and  hammer.  And 
how  does  the  shoemaker  sit  when  working  ?  And  can  we 
have  a  shop  and  sell  the  shoes  we  make  ?  And  may  I 
come  to  buy  a  pair  of  shoes  for  baby  and  for  Ruth,  who 
is  coming  to  the  Nursery  School  to-morrow  ?  And  so, 
bit  by  bit,  the  game  develops,  the  children  adding  to  it 
from  their  different  experiences. 

At  this  point  a  song  might  be  sung  to  the  children  about 
a  busy  shoemaker,  such  as  : 

"  Wand'ring  up  and  down  one  day, 
I  peeped  in  the  window  over  the  way  ; 
Putting  his  needle  through  and  through, 
There  sat  a  cobbler  making  a  shoe. 

"  Rap-a-tap-tap,  tick-a-tack  too. 
This  is  the  way  to  make  a  shoe  ; 
Rap-a-tap-tap,  tick-a-tack  too. 
This  is  the  way  to  make  a  shoe." 

The  words  and  music  help  to  crystallize  a  common 
experience,  and  to  give  an  ideal  setting  to  an  everj^day 
occupation.  A  set  form  introduced  at  the  first  may 
easily  kill  spontaneity,  but,  coming  as  the  summing-up 
of  the  whole  play,  it  corresponds  to  the  universal  habit 
of  childhood  to  repeat  in  a  chosen  form  what  it  loves. 

To  expect  our  town-bred  children  to  represent  in  play 
the  activities  of  farmer  or  woodcutter,  life  of  bird  or 
insect  in  garden,  field  or  hedgerow,  without  much  careful 
preparation,  is  foolish,  because  so  entirely  artificial. 
Although  they  have  no  first-hand  experience  of  country 
life,  it  is  wrong  to  suppose  that  the  nature  game  has  no 
place  in  the  Nursery  School  of  our  crowded  cities.  On  the 
contrary,  every  opportunity  must  be  taken  to  bring  the 
children  into  relation  with  nature.  Every  Nursery  School, 
it  is  hoped,  will  have  some  garden  plot,  however  unfavour- 
ably the  school  may  be  situated.  Let  the  children  have 
beans,  nasturtium  seeds,  sweet-peas,  scarlet  runners, 
and    many  another   friend   of   the    town-dweller.      Let 


78  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

them  be  handled  and  examined.  Tell  the  children  that  a 
secret  lies  hidden  within.  Prepare  the  soil  with  the 
children,  sift  and  crumble  the  brown  earth  till  all  is 
smooth  and  ready  for  the  seeds.  Sow  some  in  the  soil, 
and  let  the  children  watch  their  growth. 

The  children  can  be  helped  to  enter  more  fully  into  the 
wonderful  discovery  that  the  seeds  have  begun  to  grow 
by  playing  a  game  which  may  express  itself  finally  in  some 
such  words  as  these  : 

"  To  the  sleeping  seeds  in  the  great  brown  earth 
Came  the  sunshine,  so  warm,  so  warm, 
And  whispered,  Seed-children,  drowsy  with  sleep. 
Come  throw  off  your  blankets  and  upward  creep ; 
Never  fear  any  cold  or  wintry  storm, 
Said  the  sunshine  so  warm,  warm,  warm. 

Then  the  wee  seeds  stirred  in  the  great  brown  earth 

And  crept  to  the  sunshine  warm ; 
And  downwards  the  rootlets  bravely  went, 
And  upwards  the  strong  green  shoots  they  sent; 
And  they  smiled  to  the  sky  that  o'er  them  bent 
'Neath  the  sunshine  so  warm,  warm,  warm. 

Here  words,  music,  and  movement  help  to  emphasize 
the  slow  growth  of  the  plant,  and  the  child's  daily  observa- 
tions acquire  greater  significance. 

The  dominant  interests  of  the  day,  week,  or  season 
of  the  year  will  all  provide  material  for  games  or  plays. 
Certain  traditional  games,  with  their  marked  rhythm 
and  simple  action,  such  as  Ring-a-Ring  o'  Roses,  the 
Mulberry  Bush,  and  Round  and  Round  the  Village,  appeal 
strongly  to  Nursery  School  children — though,  in  the 
writer's  opinion,  traditional  games  for  the  most  part 
belong  to  a  later  period  in  the  child's  life. 

Toys 

A  nursery  without  toys  is  no  children's  room.  Toys 
have  many  purposes  to  fill  in  the  life  of  a  child,  and  they 
can,  if  wisely  chosen,  render  valiant  service.  The  instinct 
of  curiosity  that  urges  the  little  discoverer  to  investigate 


3   ./^D 


EDUCATION  OF  NURSERY  CHILDREN      79 

may  find  fitting  satisfaction  through  toys,  or,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  over-elaborate  and  outside  his  range  of  interests, 
they  may  act  as  a  drag  on  his  imagination  and  overwhelm 
him  by  their  material  completeness. 

Yet,  in  spite  of  the  universal  need,  very  little  considered 
thought  has  been  given  by  the  guardians  of  children  to 
this  practical  problem.  The  toy  market  is  still  dominated 
by  commercial  interests  ;  though  there  are  signs  that  a 
new  era  in  toy-making  is  dawning,  and  that  the  feebly 
made,  showy  article  so  easily  broken,  so  limited  in  possi- 
bilities, is  no  longer  to  crowd  the  toy-shops.  The  toys  now 
being  made  by  the  disabled  soldiers  indicate  the  modern 
desire  for  greater  simplification  and  stronger  workman- 
ship. 

Quality,  not  quantity,  is  the  accepted  line  of  advance. 
Confusion  of  thought  and  dullness  of  spirit  are  so  frequently 
the  result  of  an  over-abundance  of  material  things.  In 
one  Nursery  School,  where  the  children  had  a  great  variety 
of  toys  and  used  them  indiscriminately,  discarding  one 
for  another  at  will,  the  superintendent  noticed  that  the 
children  were  becoming  wanton  and  restless.  The  sense 
stimulus  appeared  to  be  too  great  for  them  to  resist  the 
immediate  appeal,  and  they  were  bewildered  by  the 
multiplicity  of  material.  She  limited  the  number  of  toys 
from  which  to  choose,  she  trained  each  child  to  put  away 
one  toy  before  taking  out  another,  and  found  that,  very 
soon,  their  play  showed  greater  vitality  and  variety. 
Children  need  time  for  their  imagination  to  play  around 
the  concrete  symbol,  so  that  wise  limitation  is  a  help  and 
not  a  hindrance  to  growth.  The  old  nursery  rule  of  special 
toys  for  special  occasions,  e.g.  a  rainy  day,  is  a  further 
check  on  a  thoughtless  liberality. 

Further,  it  is  well  to  note  that  the  growing  human  life 
has  varying  needs  at  each  stage  of  development.  The 
toy  that  satisfies  at  the  age  of  two  is  often  unsuitable  for 
a  child  of  four  or  five  years.  The  Nursery  School  should 
provide  different  kinds  of  toys  to  meet  the  changing 
demands  of  growth.  There  will  be  toys  for  the  individual 
child  and  toys  for  a  group.    Partnership  in  play  will  widen 


80  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

the  range  of  possibilities  and  present  old  friends  in  a  new 
light.  No  distinction  between  toj's  for  boys  or  girls  is 
necessary  or  desirable. 

The  complicated  mechanical  toy  with  delicately  adjusted 
parts  is  out  of  place,  though,  on  the  other  hand,  mechanical 
devices,  e.g.  the  spring  catches  of  a  despatch  case,  and 
jointed  wooden  toys,  are  very  attractive  to  little  children. 
One  would  suggest  that  the  grotesque  toy,  which  unfor- 
tunatety  has  been  so  prominent  of  late  years,  is  undesir- 
able. There  is  nothing  childlike  in  the  purposely  distorted 
representation  of  human  features.  Even  the  Golliwog, 
so  universally  accepted,  may  be  merely  a  terrifying  being 
on  first  acquaintance.  Yet  the  toys  that  provoke  genuine 
fun  and  laughter  must  on  no  account  be  excluded.  It 
may  not  be  easy,  perhaps,  to  distinguish  the  comic  toy 
from  the  grotesque  one,  but  the  children  themselves, 
in  their  spontaneous  likes  and  dislikes,  are  generally  a 
fairly  sure  guide. 

The  toys  that  have  stood  the  test  of  time  are  probably 
the  most  educational,  such  as  balls,  dolls  of  many  kinds 
(costly  ones  are  by  no  means  necessary),  bricks  of  various 
sizes  and  shapes,  cylindrical  as  well  as  rectangular,  strongly 
made  carts  and  wagons,  engines  and  trucks,  familiar 
animals,  a  doll's-house,  a  rocking-horse,  picture  books, 
shuttlecocks  and  battledores,  cup  and  ball,  ninepins, 
hoops  and  sticks,  whips  and  reins,  tops,  spades  and  buckets, 
boats,  drums,  and  other  musical  instruments,  and  simple 
models  of  things  used  in  the  home  and  neighbourhood.  The 
things  that  grown-up  people  use  are  full  of  unexplored  and 
romantic  meaning  to  all  children,  and  in  using  them  for 
purposes  of  their  own,  they  claim  their  kinship  with  the 
great  world,  and  learn,  little  by  little,  to  understand  the 
significance  of  things  and  actions. 

H.  G.  Wells,  in  his  book  on  "  Floor  Games,"^  has 
remembered  what  it  means  to  be  a  child. 

Many  of  the  ready-made  toys  in  cardboard  or  paper 
will  not  be  wanted.     Their  purpose  is  transitory.     Far 

Publisher,  Fred  Palmer,  Red  Lion  Court,  London. 


EDUCATION  OF  NURSERY  CHILDREN      81 

better  that  these  should  be  made  by  the  Nursery  com- 
munity as  the  need  arises,  whether  it  be  for  dramatic 
representation,  pageant  or  procession,  or  the  pure  joy 
of  making  a  toy.  Both  teachers  and  children  should  be 
makers  of  toys.  Naturally,  little  ones  of  Nursery  School 
age  are  incapable  of  doing  anything  but  the  very  simplest 
constructive  work,  but  they  can  be  happy  assistants  to 
parent  or  teacher,  elder  brother  or  sister.  This  co-opera- 
tion between  the  ages  is  a  feature  of  home-life  that  should 
also  be  characteristic  of  the  Nursery  School. 

The  proper  housing  of  toys  is  of  some  importance.  A 
play-cupboard  or  chest  of  drawers,  low  and  easily  acces- 
sible, is  preferable  to  a  play-box.  Care  for  property  and 
orderly  arrangement  of  things  can  easily  become  habits. 
There  is  no  one  too  young  to  begin  to  learn  that  there  is 
a  place  for  everything  and  that  everything  should  be  in  its 
place.  How  few  grown-up  people  allow  children  sufficient 
time  for  putting  away  their  toys. 

Since  Froebel  invented  his  series  of  gifts  much  has 
been  published  on  what  writers  have  called  ' '  Educative 
Toys  "  ;  in  recent  years  renewed  interest  in  this  subject 
has  been  aroused  by  the  appearance  of  Dr.  Montessori's 
scientifically  planned  apparatus.  Dr.  Montessori  herself 
appears  to  distinguish  carefully  between  what  she  calls 
her  didactic  material  and  toys,  but  expounders  of  her 
educational  method  have  nevertheless  used  the  term 
"  educative  toy  "  when  referring  to  the  apparatus. 

Strictly  speaking,  are  the  Gifts  and  the  Didactic  material 
toys  ?  The  answer  is  an  important,  perhaps  even  a 
fundamental,  one  for  the  Nursery  School  teacher.  The 
value  of  the  toy  is  hard  to  define.  If  it  is  admitted  that  it 
is  a  symbol,  that  its  chief  value  lies  in  the  host  of  associa- 
tions that  are  built  up  around  it,  and  that  it  satisfies  the 
ever-changing,  inarticulate,  emotional  life  of  the  child  by 
the  countless  ways  in  which  it  can  be  used  to  meet  the 
pressing  demands  of  the  moment,  then  Dr.  Montessori's 
apparatus,  with  its  limited  purpose  and  its  strict  adherence 
to  the  acquirement  of  a  definite  technique,  would  seem 
scarcely  to  fulfil  the  function  of  toys.  Frocbcl's  gifts, 
6 


82  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

in  spite  of  their  mathematical  implications  and  elaborate 
formulae,  appear  to  be  nearer  to  the  meaning  of  a  true 
toy,  inasmuch  as  creativeness  is  the  dominating  principle 
underlying  their  use,  whereas  preparation  for  creativeness, 
the  practice  of  Dr.  Montessori.  There  is  grave  danger  that 
the  carefully  ordered  experiences  of  Dr.  Montessori's 
apparatus,  if  exclusively  used,  may  unduly  limit  the  child, 
and  so  impoverish  his  nature.  Moreover,  it  may  be  that 
ordered  experience  is  the  end  rather  than  the  beginning 
of  the  learning  process ,  in  which  case  the  freer  use  of 
the  age-long  simple  toys  of  childhood — as,  for  instance, 
those  used  by  Egyptian^  children  2000  B.C.,  or  by  Greek^ 
children  in  the  5th  century  B.C. — has  an  important 
part  to  play  in  child  development,  and  for  this  no 
ordered  apparatus  can  be  a  fitting  substitute. 

Construction 

The  instinct  of  construction  early  seeks  satisfaction. 
From  the  aimless  piling  of  things  together  the  baby  soon 
advances,  helped  by  sympathetic,  playful  suggestions  of 
older  child  or  adult,  to  using  material  for  some  definite 
purpose.  In  passing  from  this  first  stage  to  constructing 
from  ideas  there  seems  to  be  an  intermediate  step.  For 
example,  a  tiny  child  playing  with  bricks  or  reels  is  at  first 
gloriously  content  with  "hustling  things  about."  He 
demands  no  other  joy  than  the  exercise  of  activity.  But 
the  material  is  suggestive,  and  suddenly,  at  play  one  day, 

1  "  Like  all  children,  Egyptian  children  loved  toys  of  all  kinds. 
As  examples  of  these  may  be  mentioned  the  cat  with  a  movable 
lower  jaw,  the  elephant  with  his  rider,  each  having  movable  limbs, 
the  toy  dog,  hippopotamus,  etc.,  dolls,  numerous  examples  of  which 
have  come  down  to  us,  tops  and  balls."  (See  "  Guide  to  the 
Egyptian  Collection  in  the  British  Museum,"  and  cases  in  the  British 
Museum  and  in  the  Manchester  Universitj'  Museum.) 

2  Rattles,  whistles,  sometimes  in  the  form  of  animals,  drums  or 
tambourines,  balls  of  all  kinds  and  materials,  bells  ;  animals  such 
as  the  Trojan  horse  (the  forerunner  of  the  Noah's  Ark),  dolls  and 
their  furniture  and  clothes,  hoops,  see-saw,  swing,  toy  carts  and 
horses,  hobby-horse,  boats,  kites.  (See  section  in  British  Museum 
Handbooks,  department  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities  on  Daily 
Life,  and  "  A  Companion  to  Greek  Studies,"  edited  by  Leonard 
Wliibley,  chapter  on  "  Daily  Life,"  by  E.  A.  Gardner.) 


EDUCATION   OF  NURSERY  CHILDREN      83 

he  will  recognize  a  resemblance  between  his  pile  of  bricks 
and  some  familiar  object  of  his  environment,  and  acclaim 
it  as  an  engine,  a  train,  or  a  bridge.  The  discovery  is 
purely  accidental  in  this  first  instance,  though  the  helpful 
parent  or  teacher  who,  while  playing  with  him,  has  given 
names  to  his  earlier  experimental  efforts,  may  doubtless 
have  prepared  the  way  for  this  advance. 

Much  of  a  child's  early  experimental  play  with  objects 
is  destructive.  This  tendency  can  so  easily  be  turned  into 
constructive  activity,  with  all  its  added  fun  and  developing 
interests,  that  it  seems  a  pity  not  to  do  so. 

Brick  Building 

There  is  no  doubt  that  building  bricks,  sand,  and  coloured 
beads  stand  unrivalled  in  the  affection  of  little  children  as 
constructive  material.  Of  these  three,  building  with  bricks 
is  perhaps  of  the  greatest  educative  value.  The  variety 
in  the  material  gives  many  sense  experiences,  control  is 
gained  by  placing  the  bricks,  judgment  must  be  exercised 
in  selecting  the  most  suitable  brick  for  the  purpose  ;  the 
play  constantly  gives  opportunity  for  social  training,  and, 
lastly,  the  material  is  sufficiently  suggestive  to  hold  endless 
possibilities  for  progress.  Building  with  bricks,  and  other 
suitable  materials  such  as  reels,  corrugated  cardboard, 
match  boxes,  gas-mantle  boxes,  in  short,  boxes  of  all 
shapes  and  sizes,  seems  pre-eminently  to  satisfy  the 
special  needs  of  children  of  Nursery  School  age.  In 
fact,  it  would  be  true  to  say  that  it  is  the  one  form 
of  really  constructive  work  a  child  under  five  years  of 
age  is  capable  of  doing  ;  an  intelligent  child  of  five  can 
do  much  more.  The  "  Play- Work  "  book  by  Miss 
Ann  Macbeth  gives  much  helpful  suggestion  and  advice 
on  this  subject. 

The  floor  makes  the  best  building  ground,  but  the  child 
of  four  or  five  years  finds  the  low  table  and  chair  more 
comfortable  for  some  of  his  enterprises,  though  in  the  toil 
and  stress  of  creation  he  often  returns  to  lie  at  full  length 
on  the  floor.     All  building  materials  should  be  kept  in  a 


84  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

place  easily  accessible,  to  which  the  child  is  free  to  go. 
He  can  then  gather  his  own  store  of  materials,  and  soon 
the  children,  working  either  alone  or  in  small  groups,  will 
transform  the  floor  into  busy  railway  stations,  aeroplane 
or  cotton  factories,  a  crowded  thoroughfare  with  its  houses 
and  churches,  pavements  and  bridges.  Thus  the  simple, 
homely,  first  building  of  tables  and  chairs,  cupboards 
and  beds,  engines  and  carts,  develops  into  the  more 
ambitious  schemes  that  require  sometimes  the  greater 
part  of  the  day  for  completion. 

In  all  this  play  the  children  must  be  free  to  carry  out 
their  own  plans  and  interests,  but  for  the  child  who  has 
come  to  the  end  of  his  resources,  and  for  the  unfortunate 
child  who  has  no  ideas,  suggestions  from  a  grown-up  play- 
fellow may  be  welcome.  Much  is  often  learnt  by  examin- 
ing the  achievements  of  other  children  of  the  group,  but 
any  kind  of  dictated  work  is  entirely  out  of  place-;  it 
demands  a  power  of  interpretation  far  beyond  children  so 
young,  and,  instead  of  encouraging  effort,  makes  too  great 
a  demand  on  the  attention,  with  the  further  disastrous 
effect  that  the  creative  impulse  itself  is  overpowered. 

Sand  Play 

A  sand-pile  is  another  of  childhood's  delights  and  is 

a  well-known  feature  of  good  Nursery  Schools.     It  is  best 

in  the  garden.     One  phiy  garden  has  solved  the  problem 

of  keeping  the  sand  clean  by  enclosing  it  in  a  box  with  a 

padlocked   lid.    This   precaution,    however,    would   only 

be  necessary  for  a  small  pile  of  sand.     Provided  it  be 

sufficiently  large,  e.g.  twenty-eight  feet  by^'eventeen  feet, 

as  in  the  Stockport  Day  Nursery,  and  the  sand  be  turned 

over  from  time  to  time,  there  is  no  difficulty.     Sunshine 

and  the  fresh  air  keep  it  perfectly  sweet  and  clean  with 

little  fear  of  infection.    Builders'  sand,  not  the  fine  silver 

sand,    is    the    more  suitable.     The    latter  is  useless  for 

modelling  purposes.     An  interesting  account  of  the  uses 

of  a  sand-pile  and  its  meaning  to  children  is  given  by  Dr. 

Stanley  Hall  in  his  "  Story  of  a  Sand-Pile," ^ 

1  See  "  Aspects  of  Child  Life  and  Education,"  by  G.  Stanley 
Hall.     Ginn  &  Co. 


EDUCATION   OF  NURSERY  CHILDREN      85 

The  hunger  to  satisfy  this  impulse  is  seen  in  the  crowded 
areas  of  big  cities.  The  Httle  dwellers,  with  no  suitable 
material  at  hand,  will  use  the  dust  of  the  roadside,  or  the 
arid  soil  of  the  barren  open  spaces.  Happier  far  the 
country  child  whose  mother  need  not  forbid  the  making 
of  mud  pies  in  a  corner  of  the  garden.  With  Saturday's 
overall,  spades,  buckets,  and  a  can  of  water,  never-to-be- 
forgotten  experiences  will  be  given  to  those  to  whom  a 
sand-pile  may  be  an  unattainable  luxury. 

Bead-Threading 

There  is  no  need  to  dwell  upon  the  fascination  of  large, 
coloured  beads  to  little  children.  They  are  an  unfailing 
source  of  joy.  Their  chief  constructive  value  lies,  it  seems, 
in  the  satisfaction  they  give  to  that  interest  in  arrangement, 
which  is  so  noticeable  in  many  children.  Here  is  seen  the 
beginning  of  an  interest  in  design.  At  first  the  little  child 
is  content  with  the  joy  of  threading  the  beads,  but  gradually 
he  uses  them  for  some  purpose — to  make  a  necklace,  a 
bracelet,  a  curtain.  Another  time  he  may  sort  them  into 
different  colours,  shapes,  or  sizes,  or  combine  them  with 
other  materials,  as  when  he  uses  them  to  make  a  flower- 
bed in  his  sand-garden. 


In  all  constructive  work  and  play  the  making  of  things  for 
a  definite  purpose  should  be  encouraged.  Motivation  is 
the  secret  of  all  good  constructive  work  ;  without  it  the 
result  is  barren  and  artificial. 

The  Nursery  School  teacher  will  exercise  her  art  and 
intelligence  in  so  organizing  the  life  of  the  little  community 
that  real  needs  will  arise.  Self-directed  activity,  not  the 
task  imposed,  however  kindly,  will  be  the  motive  force. 
By  closely  associating  the  Nursery  School  with  the  daily 
interests  of  home  and  neighbourhood,  by  providing  for 
the  observation  of  the  cycle  of  the  seasons,  and  in  the 
preparation  for  festivals,  the  children  will  have  abundant 
opportunity  for  doing  things  that  are  worth  while.     The 


86  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Nursery  School  teacher  must  entirely  free  herself  from  the 
traditional  idea  that  all  her  children  must  do  the  same  thing 
at  the  same  time.  For  example,  much  of  the  value  of 
the  making  of  a  school  garden  lies  in  the  opportunity 
it  gives  for  corporate  activity  and  corporate  enio3^ment, 
and  there  is  scope  also  for  individual  work.  The  gardener 
and  every  Nurserj'  School  teacher  should  be  one,  can  so 
arrange  and  direct  the  work  that  the  youngest  can  con- 
tribute something  to  the  making  of  the  whole. 

The  Nursery  School  helper  must  be  prepared  for  crudest 
results  and  often  lightning  performance.  The  slightest 
resemblance  to  the  original  satisfies  the  little  child,  and 
directly  that  which  claimed  his  attention  is  recorded  he 
is  content.  The  careful  adjustment  of  means  to  ends 
belongs  to  a  much  later  stage  of  development.  Approval 
or  disapproval  by  the  community  of  the  work  done  is  a 
helpful  sitmulus  ;  children  are  very  sensitive  to  the  judg- 
ment of  their  world.  The  cheering  ' '  Well  done  \"  "  Hasn't 
John  made  a  splendid  fence  !  "  are  great  spurs  to  further 
effort,  though  the  familiar  praise,  "  Clever  bo}-,"  has  little 
to  commend  it,  and  is  often  resented  by  the  child  for  its 
patronizing  superiority. 

The  question  of  tools  is  one  of  some  importance.  The 
pleasure  that  comes  through  using  real  things  should  not 
be  ignored.  Scissors,  hammers,  saws  and  rakes,  and  the  like 
are  very  attractive,  and  children  of  five  years  of  age  at  least 
should  be  given  legitimate  opportunities  for  using  them, 
and  be  shown  how  to  handle  them  as  the  need  arises. 

Something  has  been  said  in  an  earlier  chapter  on  the 
importance  of  excluding  all  formal  teaching  of  reading, 
writing,  and  arithmetic  from  the  Nursery  School.  It 
ma}',  however,  be  noted  here  that  the  number  aspect  of 
things  is  so  prominent  in  the  life  of  the  community  that 
the  child's  interest  in  it  is  early  aroused.  Every  one  is 
familiar  with  a  little  child's  love  of  counting,  and  many  of 
the  traditional  baby  games  and  nursery  rhymes  appeal 
to  that  interest.  Constructive  work  and  play  offer  natural 
opportunities  for  the  little  child  to  gain  rudimentary  ideas 
of  number  and  proportion  in  accordance  with  his  need. 


EDUCATION  OF  NURSERY  CHILDREN      87 

His  ideas  of  "  muchness  "  and  "  moreness  "  will  become 
more  defined  througli  using  number  for  some  practical 
purpose  he  can  understand.  Grouping  and  sharing  of 
play  materials  will  give  occasion  for  using  number,  as  well 
as  the  many  constructive  plays  of  early  childhood — keeping 
shop,  train  journeys,  and  the  like. 

Appropriate  material  should  be  within  reach  of  every 
child  when  the  impulse  to  construct  is  manifested  ;  desire 
should  find  expression  in  immediate  action,  for  it  is  through 
following  this  life  urge  that  the  child  will  gain  discipline, 
knowledge,  and  power.  Devoid  of  these  opportunities, 
childhood  is  robbed  of  one  of  its  rightful  joys,  and  later 
life  is  impoverished. 


Drawing 

Much  has  been  written  on  the  subject  of  children's 
drawings,  and  the  consensus  of  opinion  goes  to  prove  that 
those  of  young  children  are  symbolic  rather  than  realistic. 
Many  hold  that  drawing  is  necessary  for  all.  Prof.  Lethaby 
further  maintains  that  it  seems  to  be  a  natural  aptitude 
until  it  is  killed  by  "  careful  teaching  about  its  difficulties." 
The  exhibitions  of  the  Royal  Drawing  Society  demonstrate 
the  astonishing  diversity  and  vividness  of  the  drawings  of 
children  under  six  years  of  age,  as  well  as  the  remark- 
able talent  displayed  by  some.  From  the  findings  of  the 
Society  there  appears  to  be  considerable  evidence  to  support 
Professor  Lethaby's  view.  In  which  case  the  Nursery 
School  teacher's  role  is  mainly  to  provide  the  necessary 
materials — soft  neutral  coloured  paper  and  coloured  pastels, 
white  paper  and  paints,  boards  and  chalks.  Light  portable 
easels  and  boards  would  be  useful  in  open-air  nurseries, 
where  wall  space  is  necessarily  limited.  As  with  other 
materials,  so  here,  there  will  be  the  early  experimental 
play.  The  mere  covering  a  piece  of  clean  white  paper  with 
colour  is  a  joyous  experience  to  a  child  of  three  or  four 
years ;  very  soon  he  will  call  these  efforts  a  blue  sky,  a 
yellow  cornfield,   a  poppy  patch.     Children  should  draw 


88  NURSERY   SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

and  paint  out-of-doors  whenever  possible,  for  their  first- 
hand acquaintance  with  Nature  cannot  be  too  early  en- 
couraged. At  the  same  time  it  must  always  be  recognized 
that  little  children  draw  principally  from  memory,  and  not 
directly  from  Nature ;  therefore,  in  drawing  as  in  modelling, 
the  outstanding  need  of  the  little  child  is  unhampered 
opportunity  for  free  expression.  Much  has  already  been 
done  in  the  investigation  of  children's  free  drawings,  but 
one  would  venture  to  suggest  that  there  is  still  room  for 
a  carefully  arranged  and  dated  collection  of  first  drawings. 
It  would  be  a  useful  contribution  to  Child  Study  ;  the 
comparison  of  drawings  by  children  of  the  same  age  but  from 
different  districts,  or  from  different  social  classes,  would 
give  valuable  and  interesting  evidence  of  the  contents 
of  children's  minds  at  this  early  age,  and  also  throw  light 
on  the  function  of  drawing  in  mind  development. 

The  Nursery  School  teacher  will  easily  recognize  the 
supreme  value  of  studying  her  children's  free  drawings. 
They  form  a  sure  guide  to  the  experiences  that  have 
arrested  their  attention.  From  them  she  will  learn  that 
there  are  both  good  and  evil  influences  at  work.  They  will 
show  that  childish  imagination  is  stirred  by  some  interest 
of  colour  or  movement  that  is  beautiful ;  given  suitable 
materials  at  hand,  the  eager  child  will  register  that  impres- 
sion with  a  sureness,  rapidity,  and  sincerity  which  a 
Futurist  artist  might  envy.  Criticism  of  these  early 
efforts  will  be  out  of  place.  The  child  will  turn  to  parent 
or  teacher  for  sympathy  and  appreciation,  but  the  adult 
must  beware  lest  those  first  delicate  strivings  of  the  imagina- 
tion are  checked  by  well-meaning  interference.  It  is 
fatal  to  creativeness  if  any  feeling  of  inability  to  express 
should  enter  the  mind  of  the  child.  A  feeling  of  inhibition 
has  a  depressing  and  paralysing  effect  ;  some  sensitive 
people  are  hampered  for  life  as  the  result  of  unwise  criticism 
during  those  early  years  of  creative  activity. 

But  there  is  the  other  side  of  the  picture.  It  is 
a  deplorable  fact  that  so  many  tiny  children  are  now 
taken  to  kinematograph  shows,  where  they  see  much  that 
is  undesirable,  with  the  result  that  their  minds  are  stored 


EDUCATION  OF  NURSERY  CHILDREN      89 

with  numberless  ugly  and  harmful  impressions.  These 
they  reproduce  in  their  free  drawings,  and  many  teachers, 
distressed  by  what  they  find,  naturally  question  the 
advisability  of  allowing  children  to  give  expression  to  such 
unhealthy  interests.  But  it  is  surely  better  to  know  what 
exists,  for  then  there  is  more  chance  of  counteracting  the 
harmful  experiences.  To  be  shocked  by  the  representations 
would  only  increase  their  baneful  influence,  for  it  would 
probably  drive  the  impression  back  into  the  subconscious 
mind,  there  to  work  for  trouble  at  some  future  time.  It 
would  be  wiser,  probably,  to  allow  the  child  to  express  freely 
all  that  is  seething  in  his  mind,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  provide  other  stronger  interests.  In  some  instances 
the  sympathetic  teacher  may  succeed  in  putting  a  different 
interpretation  on  the  incident,  that  may  direct  the 
impression  into  a  less  harmful  channel.  There  is  reason 
to  hope,  too,  that  the  taste  of  the  nation  may  be  improved 
if  this  impulse  for  expression  is  given  wise  direction  in  the 
Nursery  School,  and  the  good  beginning  continued  in  the 
elementary  school.  In  this  way  the  vandaHsm  that  covers 
public  buildings,  fences,  and  walls  with  unsightly  drawings 
may  become  extinct. 

It  is  the  custom  in  many  schools  to  decorate  the 
walls  with  the  best  of  the  children's  drawings.  This 
may  probably  be  a  helpful  incentive  to  older  children, 
but  for  those  of  Nursery  School  age  the  interest  of 
the  drawing  passes  with  the  doing  of  it.  It  has  been 
found  that  children  appreciate  the  drawings  of  those  who 
are  just  a  stage  ahead  of  them,  but  this  interest  is  not 
generally  aroused  until  about  the  fifth  year. 

Yet,  with  all  this  free  work,  the  teacher  should  not  be 
satisfied  unless  the  children  are  making  progress.  There 
should  be  a  marked  difference  between  the  expression 
work  of  a  child  of  three  and  a  child  of  five.  At  present 
the  Nursery  School  age  is  from  two  to  five,  but  if  the  age 
be  raised  to  six,  as  many  hope,  there  should  be  a 
considerable  advance  in  the  power  of  expression  during 
the  last  year.  As  the  child's  own  powers  increase,  so  will 
he  look  for  help  and  guidance.     Then,  and  not  till  then 


90  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

should  the  teacher  come  forward  to  his  assistance.  That 
help  should  generally  consist  in  encouraging  the  children 
to  observe  more  carefully. 

Children  delight  in  colouring  pictures,  but  when  control 
of  the  tool  is  gained,  there  is  no  further  educational 
value  in  the  occupation  ;  moreover,  by  continual  use  of 
a  prepared  outline  freedom  in  the  manipulation  of  the 
brush,  or  pastel  even,  is  lost. 


Modelling 

Every  teacher  of  young  children  will  testify  to  the 
universal  appeal  of  modelling  and  drawing  as  means  of 
expression  :  one,  the  oldest  of  the  racial  crafts  ;  the  other, 
one  of  the  essential  languages.  From  rude  form  to 
decoration  and  ornament  appears  to  have  been  the  path  of 
progress  in  plastic  art,  from  symbolic  to  realistic  repre- 
sentation the  early  line  of  advance  in  drawing. 

Assuming  a  parallel  between  race  development  and 
child  development,  may  there  not  be  some  justification 
in  claiming  that  these  time-honoured  approaches  to  creative 
expression  are  deeply  satisfying  to  the  young  child. 

The  yielding  material,  be  it  putty,  dough,  clay,  or  sand, 
is  most  attractive  to  little  hands.  At  first  the  child  will 
give  expression  to  his  pure  delight  in  activity  by  pulling, 
patting,  stamping,  or  rolling  the  fascinating  material,  with 
no  thought  of  representation.  Given  ample  opportunity 
for  this  experimental  play,  the  busy,  interested  child  will 
quickly  gain  some  physical  mastery  over  the  material, 
and  be  ready  for  the  next  stage,  the  making  of  some 
definite  object,  not  from  perception,  but  from  imagery. 
The  teacher  should  watch  for  this  moment.  Nothing  is 
too  hard  or  too  complicated  for  the  child  to  attack ;  he  is 
daunted  by  nothing,  but  ranges  the  entire  gamut  of  his 
interests.  He  will  model  an  aeroplane  as  readily  as  a 
string  of  beads,  a  man  or  motor  car  as  easily  as  mother's 
takes  or  cups  and  saucers. 


EDUCATION  OF  NURSERY  CHILDREN      91 

Through  achievement  he  learns  to  observe  with  more 
discrimination,  and  by  degrees  to  express  his  ideas  more 
adequately.  Like  those  of  primitive  man,  these  early 
efforts  are  realistic.  No  criticism  of  this  early  work  is 
needed  :  it  is  enough  that  the  children  find  joy  in  the 
making,  and  that  joy  is  enriched  by  the  sympathy  and 
understanding  of  others.  Progress  will  be  seen  in  a 
greater  skill  in  handling  the  material,  and  a  greater  variety 
in  imagery,  gradually  leading  to  an  attempt  to  make  the 
model  truer  to  life.  An  object  placed  before  the  children 
may  be  a  real  help,  not  as  a  model  to  be  copied,  for  it  is 
doubtful  whether  Nursery  School  children  would  spon- 
taneously use  it  for  that  purpose,  but  if  before  the  eyes, 
it  may  be  referred  to  and  used  to  refresh  and  revivify 
images.  For  instance,  a  group  of  little  children,  illustrating 
the  nursery  story  of  "  Mary,  Mary,  quite  contrary," 
were  noticed  to  glance  from  time  to  time  at  a  watering- 
pot  placed  in  front  of  them  while  modelling  their  own 
in  clay. 

The  chief  fact  for  teachers  of  little  children  to  bear  in 
mind  is  that  opportunity  for  free  expression  is  the  insistent 
demand  of  childhood.  This  will  not  mean  leaving  the 
children  unguided  and  unrestricted.  It  is  sometimes  good 
to  work  with  them.  At  this  stage  the  teacher  should  have 
no  carefully  graded  scheme  or  plan  that  would  restrict 
the  work  to  any  particular  models.  Her  guide  must  be 
the  interests  of  the  children.  If  these  should  centre  round 
beautifully  shaped  jars  or  pitchers,  it  is  well,  but  any  forcing 
of  an  adult  standard  of  difficulty  or  beauty  would  be  a 
grievous  mistake. 

The  children  in  Dr.  Montcssori's  school  make  vases  in 
pottery,  copied  from  beautiful  Italian  models. 

How  far  handling  and  seeing  beautiful  shapes  and  forms 
will  help  the  little  child  to  the  formation  of  standards  and 
values  which  may  influence  the  whole  of  life  it  would  be 
difficult  to  appraise.  The  Nursery  School  age  is  the  age 
of  sense-perception,  and  it  seems  reasonable,  therefore, 
to  urge  the  importance  of  beautiful  surroundings  and  to 
have  faith  in  their  silent  appeal. 


93  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Musical  Expression 

The  child  of  Nursery  School  age  appears  barely  to  reach 
the  threshold  of  creative  expression  in  music.  That  he 
can  enjoy  the  songs  taught  him  is  well  known.  Whether 
he  would  create  melodies  under  encouraging  conditions 
the  practice  of  the  past  makes  it  difficult  to  tell,  for  little 
opportunity  has  been  given  or  even  thought  of.  The  idea 
that  the  ordinary  individual  may  not  only  seek  emotional 
expression  by  interpreting  the  music  of  great  composers, 
but  also  dare  to  make  music  of  his  own,  has  not  yet  taken 
sufficient  hold  on  this  generation  for  its  influence  to  be 
widely  felt  in  education.  The  work  of  Dr.  Yorke  Trotter 
and  others  is  helping  to  break  through  the  heavy  sense 
of  impotence  which  at  present  inhibit^  a  general  freedom 
of  expression  through  music.  The  fact  is,  as  any  Nursery 
School  may  discover  for  itself,  that  little  children  delight 
to  express  themselves  through  simple  musical  phrases 
invented  by  themselves.  We  should  see  that  the  children 
are  familiar  with  this  possibility,  and  foster  every  tendency 
to  express  ideas  and  feelings  in  this  way. 

Language 

The  extent  to  which  spoken  language  is  used  as  a 
means  of  expression  by  little  children  varies  considerably. 
Vocabulary  is  greatly  influenced  by  environment.  It  is  a 
well-known  fact  that  children  from  cultured  homes,  as 
a  rule,  use  spoken  language  more  freely  than  those  from 
less  fortunate  homes,  probably  because  they  receive  more 
attention,  and  their  efforts  greater  encouragement.  One 
strong  argument  against  the  segregation  of  large  numbers 
of  children  under  five  or  six  j'cars  of  age  in  one  room  is 
the  consequent  repression  of  speech.  Physiologically 
and  psychologically,  the  Nursery  School  age  is  the  age  of 
speech  development.  The  initial  difficulties  of  learning 
to  talk  are  generally  mastered  by  the  end  of  the  third 
year,  and  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  years  rapid  strides 
are  made  in  the  acquisition  of  language  as  a  means  of 


EDUCATION  OF  NURSERY  CHILDREN      98 

communication  and  as  an  instrument  of  thought.  Con- 
ditions favourable  for  this  advance  consist  in  a  stimulating 
environment,  a  ready  listener,  small  groups,  individual 
attention,  and  definite  teaching  of  words. 

In  the  Nursery  School  the  talking  should,  for  the 
most  part,  be  done  by  the  children.  This  does  not  mean 
that  the  adult  will  never  be  called  upon  to  read  aloud, 
to  recite,  to  sing,  to  tell  a  story,  to  talk  with  her  children. 
Indeed  listening  is  an  important  element  in  language 
training. 

It  must  be  remembered  therefore  that  power  in  the 
use  of  language  comes  through  havmg  both  something 
to  express  and  freedom  to  express  it.  Hence  from  the 
beginning  the  children  must  have  abundant  opportunity 
for  freedom  of  expression  in  language.  The  Victorian 
precept,  "  Little  children  should  be  seen  and  not  heard," 
has  done  much  to  blight  the  lives  of  many  grown  men  and 
women  ;  but  such  experiments  as  Mr.  Caldwell  Cook 
describes  in  his  book  "  The  Play  Way,"  ^  reveal  the  fact 
that  the  English  boy  has  much  natural  ability  for  gracious 
speech. 

Social  Service 

The  democratic  impulse  in  education  has  revealed  itself 
in  the  widespread  movement  towards  socializing  the 
school,  and  here  as  in  other  realms  a  little  child  shall 
lead.  Much  practical  help  and  inspiration  have  come  from 
the  writings  and  demonstration  schools  of  Dr,  Montessori 
and  Professor  Dewey.  Both  educators  have  shown  how 
the  daily  tasks  of  practical  life  can  be  made  an  integral  part 
of  a  child's  education,  and  Mr.  Homer  Lane,  in  the  "  Little 
Commonwealth,"  also  proved  that  the  citizens  gained 
mastery  over  themselves,  and  formed  interests  which  led 
to  organized  thought  and  action,  through  their  service 
in  and  for  the  community. 

In  the  home  there  are  many  to  be  considered,  and  the 
busy  mother  cannot  always  wait  while  the  children  learn 
1  "  The  Play  Way,"  by  Caldwell  Cook.    Heinemann. 


94  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

through  doing.  In  the  Nursery  School  there  should  always 
be  leisure  for  them  to  do  as  much  as  they  possibly  can  tor 
themselves.  The  atmosphere  of  hurry  in  many  homes, 
and  the  bewildering  round  of  activities,  give  place  in  the 
well-organized  Nursery  School  to  ordered  service  rendered 
to  self  and  others.  There  are  the  daily  duties  of  personal 
care  as  well  as  the  social  demands  of  the  school.  Whether 
it  be  the  care  of  the  rooms,  the  tending  of  animals  and 
plants,  the  laying  of  the  tables  for  meals,  the  serving  o 
the  food,  all  these  social  acts,  so  attractive  to  the  unspoiled 
child,  will  be  laying  the  foundations  for  the  highest  form  of 
expression — self-devotion — in  later   life. 

Conclusion 

While  we  lay  stress  on  all  these  experiences,  let  us  not 
forget  the  value  of  the  long,  quiet  spaces  in  the  daily  hfe 
of  the  Nursery  School  child,  when  nothing  will  be  required 
of  him,  and  he  is  free  to  run  about,  watching  others  at 
work  or  play,  to  lie  on  the  floor  or  grass,  or  to  wander  at 
large  in  the  garden  amongst  the  flowers. 

These  influences,  and  many  more  that  the  poets  of 
childhood  understand,  will  contribute  to  the  making  of  the 
citizen  of  the  better,  happier  England  for  which  we  work 
and  hope— the  England  yet  to  be. 


PART   IV 

THE  HYGIENE  OF   THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL 
By  Catherine  Chisholm,  B.A.,  M.D. 

Hon.  Physician  to  the  Manchester  Babies'  Hospital 
CHAPTER    I 

THE   CHILD   AND   HIS  DEVELOPMENT 

FROM  the  first  it  has  been  recognized  that  the 
Nursery  School  must  be  under  careful  medical 
supervision,  as  in  it  the  physical  condition  of- 
the  child  is  the  first  consideration.  It  links  up  the  schools 
for  mothers  with  the  elementary  schools,  and  is,  to 
the  medical  authority  concerned  with  child  welfare,  a 
necessary  part  of  a  complete  educational  scheme.  The 
Nursery  School  provides  for  children  whose  homes  are 
inadequate  to  give  training  in  those  regular  habits  on 
which  health  in  later  years  depends.  Incipient  defects 
may  be  detected  early  in  such  children  whilst  under  con- 
stant supervision,  and  checked  before  it  is  too  late. 

The  Nursery  School  has  dangers  peculiar  to  itself,  and 
its  institution  is  only  justifiable  when  precaution  against 
those  dangers  are  rigorously  adopted. 

The  young  are  prone  to  pick  up  infections  at  a  stage 
when  infections  are  particularly  harmful  to  them.  The 
fatahty  of  scarlet  fever  and  diphtheria,  according  to  Dr. 
Martin,  of  Stroud,  is  200  per  cent,  greater  for  children 

95 


96  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

under  five  years  of  age  than  from  five  to  fifteen  years, 
(See  Report  of  Consultative  Committee  upon  the  School 
Attendance  of  Children  below  the  age  of  five.) 

Not  only  do  these  diseases  cause  many  deaths,  but  the 
after-effects  on  those  who  survive  are,  as  a  rule,  more 
serious  than  is  the  case  with  older  children. 

In  arranging  a  Nursery  School  we  must  see  that  the  con- 
ditions provide  what  is  essential  to  growth,  and  also 
that  the  risk  of  infection  is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

The  medical  officer  is  therefore  concerned  with  : 
I.  The  physical  development  of  the  child. 
II.  The  environment  of  the  child  and  its  daily  routine. 
III.  The  prevention  of  disease. 

The  Nursery  School  provides  for  the  education  of  the 
child  from  two  years  old  to  six. 

No  attempt  ought  to  be  made  in  these  schools 
to  classify  the  children  according  to  their  age.  One 
child  is  still  a  baby  at  two  years,  whilst  another  is  so  ad- 
vanced as  to  be  indistinguishable  from  many  children  of 
three.  There  seems  to  be  a  greater  approximation  to  a 
rather  more  definite  standard  at  five  years  of  age.  But 
during  all  the  early  years  development  takes  place 
gradually  and  irregularly.  This  process  must  never  be 
forced,  and  the  children  of  various  ages  should  be  grouped 
together  as  in  a  family. 

Physical  Characteristics  ol  a  Child  of  Nursery  School  Age 

The  child  of  two  entering  the  Nursery  School  should  be 
about  two  feet  eight  inches  in  height,  and  twenty-eight  and 
a  half  pounds  in  weight.  He  should  have  a  good  colour,  • 
with  fresh,  clear  skin,  and  be  able  to  run  about  on  firm, 
steady  legs.  His  chest  should  be  well  expanded  and 
rounded  ;  the  abdomen  should  not  be  over  prominent ; 
his  back  should  be  straight,  surmounted  by  a  proportionate 
head,  whose  circumference  should  be  greater  than  the 
chest,  and  whose  fontanelle  should  be  imperceptible. 
There  ought  to  be  sixteen  teeth  present,  and  the  last  four 
double  teeth  should  be  appearing.  The  whole  set  of  milk- 
teeth  should  be  complete  by  the  time  he  is  two  years  and  a 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL    97 

half  old.  At  six  years  all  the  milk-teeth  should  still  be 
present.  The  permanent  set,  with  the  exception  of  the 
wisdom  teeth,  are  now  in  the  jaw,  gradually  pushing  the 
first  set  upward,  and  by  the  end  of  the  sixth  year  the  latter 
begin  to  drop  out.  The  permanent  set  are  much  better 
formed  when  the  milk-teeth  are  not  lost  early ;  hence  the 
importance  of  keeping  the  first  set  in  good  condition  as 
long  as  possible. 

Sense  Development 

Sense  development  at  two  years  of  age  is  well  advanced. 
The  mechanical  apparatus  of  the  ear  is  fully  developed. 
Part  of  it  may  be  obstructed,  as  sometimes  happens  when 
enlarged  tonsils  and  post-nasal  adenoids  block  the  space 
into  which  the  Eustachian  tube  opens. 

In  this  way  is  caused  much  of  the  deafness  existing  in 
young  children,  or  developing  during  school  life.  A 
secondary  effect  also  of  these  growths  is  the  infection 
which  may  travel  along  the  tube  from  the  throat  to  the 
ear,  causing  middle-ear  trouble,  and  later  a  discharge 
from  the  outer  ear. 

The  apparatus  of  the  eye  is  fully  developed,  but  not  yet 
perfectly  formed,  the  immature  eyeball  being  short  from 
front  to  back.  This  causes  a  blurred  object  to  be  formed 
on  the  retina,  and  gives  the  condition  known  as  hyper- 
metropia.  As  the  child  grows,  this  condition  is  corrected, 
but  till  that  occurs  the  effort  to  focus  in  order  to  see  small 
print  or  fine  work  is  a  nervous  and  muscular  strain.  A 
young  child  should  therefore  never  be  called  upon  to  make 
such  efforts. 

Where  the  eyeball,  instead  of  being  too  short  from  front 
to  back,  is  too  long,  a  condition  known  as  myopia  is  found. 
This  condition  tends  to  get  worse  rather  than  better. 
Such  children  have  prominent  eyes,  and  as  they  do  not  sec 
distant  objects  clearly,  they  are  specially  interested  in 
pictures,  reading  and  writing,  and  things  near  to  them. 
These  children  should  be  supplied  with  glasses,  and  dis- 
couraged from  engaging  too  much  in  close  occupations. 
7 


98  NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Many  young  children  squint.  This  is  in  many  cases 
due  to  eye  strain  occasioned  by  astigmatism — that  is,  an 
inequahty  of  the  corneal  curvature,  which  gives  the 
eye  muscles  extra  work  to  do  in  order  to  focus  clearly. 
Squinting  may  also  come  on  after  a  debilitating  illness. 
Whenever  this  symptom  is  noticed,  proper  medical 
treatment  should  be  procured. 

The  high  prevalence  of  eye  defects  among  school  children 
is  appalling.  Dr.  Crowley,  in  ' '  The  Hygiene  of  School 
Life,"  states  that  approximately  one  in  ten  of  all  children 
living  a  city  life  have  some  eye  defect. 

It  is  difficult  for  any  but  experts  to  examine  the  sight 
of  such  young  children,  but  a  knowledge  of  the  defects 
frequently  found,  and  of  the  contributing  causes,  would 
make  it  possible  to  avoid  the  conditions  which  cause  eye 
strain. 

It  is  of  importance  to  realize  that,  though  the  apparatus 
of  eye  and  ear  is  fairly  developed  at  two  years  of  age,  the 
cerebral  developments  connected  with  those  organs  are 
still  incomplete.  The  researches  of  Joseph  Shaw  Bolton 
show  that  marked  changes  in  the  cortex  are  still  going 
on  in  the  early  years  of  life.  It  has  been  ascertained 
that  when  eye  or  ear  are  atrophied  the  cortex  is  not  so 
well  developed.  On  the  other  hand,  when  abundant 
stimuli  from  eye  and  ear  proceed  to  the  brain  a  fuller 
development  takes  place.  An  education  by  appeal  to 
hand,  eye,  and  ear  is  thus  physiologically  sound  for  young 
children.  In  excess,  however,  it  involves  effort  and 
fatigue  to  the  nervous  system ;  therefore  it  is  important 
to  give  to  children  quiet  times  during  the  day,  when  most 
of  these  stimuli  are  cut  off  and  the  whole  body  is  allowed 
to  rest. 

Speech 

The- child  of  two  should  be  able  to  form  words,  and  be 

already  linking   them   into   sentences.     Many,   however, 

find    difficulty    in    correct    articulation.     For   these    the 

-  i^ursery  School  may  do  much  in  helping  them  to  correct 


HYGIENE   OF  THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL   99 

their  speech  before  bad  habits  are  formed.  Much  can  also 
be  done  in  the  early  years  for  children  who  stammer  and 
stutter  by  taking  trouble  with  them  in  the  early  stages, 
whether  the  habit  begins  with  the  first  attempts  at  speech, 
or  is  acquired  later,  as  sometimes  is  the  case  with  nervous 
children.  In  their  case,  a  regime  of  fresh  air,  plenty  of 
sleep,  and  the  correction  of  all  defects,  especially  of  the 
respiratory  organs,  are  essential.  Breathing  exercises 
should  be  practised  as  soon  as  the  child  can  understand 
them.  Short  periods  of  practising  difficult  sounds  will 
help,  and  medical  treatment  in  all  cases  of  both  backward 
and  nervous  children  should  be  obtained. 

Muscular  Movements 

The  muscular  system  of  the  body  is  active  at  two  years 
of  age,  and  co-ordination  in  the  chief  coarse  movements 
of  the  body  has  been  acquired.  Fine  movements,  how- 
ever, such  as  are  used  in  writing  and  sewing,  are  not  yet 
obtained,  and  should  not  be  attempted  until  five  or  six 
years  of  age.  Even  then  they  should  only  be  practised 
for  short  periods  of  time.  Thick  pencils  should  be  used  for 
writing,  coarse  needles,  cottons,  and  materials  for  sewing, 
and  only  large  stitches  (as  illustrated  by  Miss  Margaret 
Swanson  in  "Educational  Needlccraft ")  ^  should  be 
taught. 

Free  natural  play  as  a  method  of  exercising  the  muscles 
is  invaluable.  Children,  with  their  natural  love  for  rhythm, 
enjoy  marching  and  drilling  to  music,  and  this  helps 
general  bodily  development.  Only  movements  involving 
the  large  muscles  should  be  practised  by  young  children, 
and  these  but  for  very  short  periods,  for  physical  exercises, 
and  even  organized  games,  may  easily  become  a  severe 
effort. 


Educational    Ncedlecraft,"    M.    Swanson    and    A.    Macbeth. 
Longmans. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  SURROUNDINGS  OF  THE   CHILD 

THE  buildings,  heating,  ventilation,  and  equipment 
of  the  Nursery  School  are  treated  in  another 
section  of  the  book.    It  seems  essential,  however, 
to  emphasize  one  or  two  points. 

Daily  exercise  in  the  open  air  is  essential  for  the  health 
of  every  child.  Therefore  no  Nursery  School  should  exist 
without  a  sheltered  garden.  Where  possible  the  school 
buildings  should  be  of  the  open-air  type.  For  the  after- 
noon's sleep,  quiet,  well-ventilated  rooms  are  necessary, 
but  whenever  possible  the  children's  beds  should  be  placed 
out  of  doors,  with  shade  and  shelter  according  to  the 
weather. 

A  small  room  should  always  be  set  aside  for  the  isolation 
of  suspected  cases  of  illness,  and  another  room  should  be 
available  for  rest,  for  children  showing  signs  of  fatigue 
or  malaise  at  any  time  during  the  day. 

As  regards  the  warmth  of  the  rooms,  the  maintenance 
of  an  even  temperature  should  be  the  chief  aim,  for  children 
have  difficulty  in  regulating  heat  production.  Also,  com- 
pared with  adults,  they  have  a  larger  superficial  skin  area, 
and  therefore  lose  heat  from  the  body  more  quickly. 

About  60°  F.  is  a  suitable  temperature  for  the  rooms. 
A  temperature  below  55°  F.  inside  a  building  causes 
discomfort  ;    above  60°  F.  it  causes  lassitude. 

When,  however,  children  are  well  fed  and  well  clothed, 
and  are  acclimatized  to  an  open-air  life,  even  little  ones 
thrive  well  out  of  doors  all  the  year  round.  Suitable 
food  and  clothing  are  in  these  circumstances  a  sine  qua 
non. 

100 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL   101 

The  rooms  should  be  large  enough  to  give  each  child  a 
minimum  floor  space  of  fifteen  square  feet,  but  in  no  case 
should  more  than  thirty  children  occupy  one  room.  An 
ideal  group  would  not  number  more  than  twelve  or  fifteen 
children,  for  there  is  a  considerable  nervous  strain  on  young 
children  when  they  are  associated  in  large  numbers. 

All  toys  and  apparatus  should  be  capable  of  being 
cleaned  and  disinfected,  and  should  not  be  painted. 


CHAPTER   III 

CONSIDERATIONS   AFFECTING   THE    DAILY 
ROUTINE 

INASMUCH   as  the  Nursery  School  is  generally  con- 
cerned with  the  training  of  the   children   in   good 
hygienic  habits,  the  method  of   spending   the   day 
must  be  considered  in  this  section  of  the  book. 

Bathing 

The  child  on  arrival  must  be  received  and  inspected  by 
the  superintendent,  in  order  that  his  general  condition 
may  be  investigated.  It  is  of  vital  importance  to  the 
nursery-  that  the  first  symptom  of  any  illness  should  be 
noticed.  The  cleanliness  of  the  child  can  at  the  same 
time  be  investigated.  Every  child  of  Nursery  School  age 
should  have  a  daily  bath.  The  mother  ought  to  attend 
to  this.  If  the  child  does  not  arrive  clean  at  the  school, 
his  condition  should  be  demonstrated  to  the  mother,  and 
he  must  be  bathed  and  washed. 

A  high  standard  of  cleanliness  must  be  maintained, 
and  experience  shows  that  the  mothers  quickly  respond 
when  the  superintendent  is  sj^mpathetic  and  helpful. 

The  practice  which  holds  in  some  Nursery  Schools  of 
bathing  every  child,  whether  it  is  clean  or  not,  is  unfair 
to  the  health  of  the  child,  as  well  as  demoralizing  in  its 
effect  ^xi  the  mother.  Mothers  are  apt  to  stop  performing 
what  has  become  a  work  of  supererogation. 

When  bathing  a  child  the  superintendent  should  have 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL    103 

in  mind  the  tendency  of  young  children  to  take  cold. 
She  should  always  end  a  bath  with  a  tepid  sponge  down, 
and  a  good  rub  with  a  rough  towel.  The  clothes  should 
then  be  put  on  quickly. 

Clothing 

The  question  of  providing  nursery  clothes  is  a  conten- 
tious one.  To  be  constantly  altering  the  number  and 
weight  of  the  garments  regardless  of  the  climatic  conditions 
is  dangerous  to  any  child.  Children  do  not  quickly  regulate 
their  temperature  to  sudden  changes.  This  tendency  to 
take  cold  is  a  danger  where  nursery  clothes  are  provided. 
The  child  should  not  have  his  or  her  clothes  changed  from 
the  many  garments  the  mother  often  provides  into  a 
sensibly  arranged  dress,  and  then  back  again  for  the 
journey  home.  A  nursery  overall  of  washable  material 
should,  however,  be  provided  for  each  child.  Changes  in 
the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  clothes  should  only  be  made 
according  to  the  state  of  the  weather,  never  according  to 
the  calendar. 

The  mother  ought  to  be  shown  modern  methods  of 
clothing,  and  the  advantage  of  simple  garments.  The 
dangers  of  tight  clothes  and  the  harmfulness  of  either  too 
many  or  of  too  scanty  garments  should  be  demonstrated. 
Woollen  garments  covering  the  limbs  in  winter,  and 
lighter  ones,  either  of  the  same  material  or  of  cellular 
type,  allowing  air  and  sunshine  to  get  to  the  limbs,  should 
be  worn  in  summer.  A  vest  or  combinations  covered  by 
a  bodice,  to  which  knickers  are  attached,  and  a  simple 
upper  garment,  after  the  fashion  of  a  gymnasium  or  pina- 
fore frock,  are  suitable  for  girls.  For  little  boys,  combina- 
tions and  suits  of  knickers  and  blouse,  or  coat,  are  sufficient. 
The  thickness  of  the  material  should  be  varied  with  the 
weather. 

Training  in  Regular  Habits 

The    superintendent    should    inquire    of     the    mother 


104        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

whether  the  daily  evacuation  of  the  bowel  has  taken  place. 
The  Nursery  School  should  train  the  child  in  regular 
habits  if  the  mother  has  not  done  so.  Much  constipation 
in  after  life  can  be  avoided  by  early  training.  In  the  case 
of  an  unduly  constipated  child  the  mother  should  be  given 
medical  advice,  or  directed  where  to  obtain  it. 

In  the  management  of  a  Nursery  School  the  lavatory 
problem  often  looms  unduly  large,  but  it  is  one  which 
often  necessitates  careful  attention.  Most,  if  not  all, 
children  can  be  trained  to  be  clean  by  (i)  attending  to 
the  general  health,  so  that  the  nervous  energy  is  sufficiently 
developed  and  strong  enough  to  control  the  bladder; 
(2)  attending  to  local  conditions  by  removing  sources 
of  irritation,  such  as  uncleanliness,  tight  foreskin, 
thread-worms;  (3)  training  the  child  to  relieve  himself 
at  regular  intervals,  gradually  lengthened,  until  the  normal 
opportunities  of  the  break  for  lunch,  dinner,  and  after 
the  afternoon  sleep  are  sufficient.  If  control  is  not  acquired, 
medical  aid  should  be  sought,  as  it  is  important  to  treat 
such  cases  early. 

Care  of  Teeth 

The  toilet  must  be  finished  by  teaching  the  children 
how  to  clean  their  teeth.  It  is  important  to  provide 
good  tooth  brushes,  as  harm  has  resulted  from  swallowing 
loose  bristles.  The  front  and  back  of  the  teeth  should  be 
brushed,  the  mouth  washed  out  and  the  throat  gargled. 
It  is  difficult  for  a  very  young  child  to  gargle,  but  even 
the  three  and  four  year  old  children  often  become  adepts. 

Breathing  Exercises 

Some  part  of  the  morning  should  be  set  aside  for 
breathing  exercises,  to  be  taken  whenever  possible  in 
the  open  air.  From  the  earliest  days  proper  breathing 
should  be  encouraged,  and  any  obstruction  from  adenoids 
or  nasal  catarrh  treated. 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL    105 

The  child  should  be  made  to  clear  the  nose  thoroiighl}', 
by  holding  the  handkerchief  under  the  nose  with  one  hand, 
while  with  the  other  hand  he  pinches  the  top  bony 
portion  of  the  nose,  leaving  the  nostrils  uncompressed  and 
open,  at  the  same  time  making  an  expiratory  effort. 

He  must  also  be  taught,  having  shut  his  mouth,  to 
breathe  in  through  the  left  nostril  by  blocking  the  right, 
and  alternately  with  the  right  by  blocking  the  left.  In 
some  cases,  but  not  necessarily  always,  he  should  breathe 
out  through  the  mouth.  He  should  repeat  these  actions 
several  times.  He  should  then  breathe  in  through  the 
right  and  out  through  the  left  nostril,  by  blocking  the  left 
for  inspiration  and  the  right  for  expiration,  and  vice  versa. 

Food 

In  the  middle  of  the  morning  the  children  will  arrange 
their  own  lunch  table  with  glasses  of  milk  (five  ounces) 
and  a  biscuit  or  two.  About  half-past  twelve  the  mid-day 
meal  will  be  laid.  In  some  Nursery  Schools  the  children 
will  go  home  for  dinner.  It  is,  however,  preferable  in  most 
cases  that  they  should  stay  for  dinner.  The  preparation 
for  the  meal  and  the  partaking  of  it  provide  an  opportunity 
for  training  them  to  wash  before  meals  and  to  cat  decently 
and  slowly  ;  the  daily  routine  can  then  be  continued  more 
satisfactorily.  Further,  the  dinner  can  be  made  a  demon- 
stration to  the  mothers  of  the  proper  preparation  and 
presentation  of  a  meal,  and  they  should  always  be  en- 
couraged to  come  and  see  their  children's  meal  Only  such 
ingredients  as  the  mother  could  provide  at  home  should  be 
used.  Inexpensive  foods  of  good  dietetic  value,  which 
the  mothers  often  despise,  may,  with  advantage,  be  incor- 
porated in  the  menus  as  a  demonstration  of  their  utility. 
Dinner  should  consist  of  a  varied  diet  of  two  courses,  and 
always  be  accompanied  by  some  fluid.  Children  often  do 
not  take  enough  to  drink,  and  though  it  is  important  not 
to  dilute  the  gastric  secretion,  especially  in  cases  of  dyspep- 
sia, children  need  and  enjoy  a  glass  of  milk  or  water  with 
or  after  their  midday  meal.      The  fluid  should  be  drunk 


106        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

slowly,  and  the  child  should  never  be  allowed  to  wash 
down  the  food  with  it.  Between  meals  children  should 
be  encouraged  to  drink  water,  but  not  near  the  bedtime. 
Every  child  should  have  at  least  a  pint  of  milk  a  day, 
either  at  home  or  at  school. 

Two  mistakes  are  often  made  in  institutional  diets  for 
children.  The  meals  are  too  monotonous  and  the  food  too 
soft.  A  monotonous  diet  fails  to  give  the  stimulation  to 
glandular  secretion  which  is  necessary  to  a  delicate  digestion 
and  advantageous  to  a  healthy  one.  The  soft  diet  fails  to 
provide  the  child  with  exercise  for  teeth  and  jaws.  The 
first  part  of  digestion  is  performed  in  the  mouth  by  the 
intimate  mixture  of  the  saliva  with  the  food  ;  if  the  food 
is  soft  it  slips  down  easily,  and  in  this  case  the  facial  muscles 
do  not  develop,  nor  do  the  bones,  and  the  second  teeth 
are  spoilt,  having  no  room  to  develop  properly  in  a  small 
jaw.  If  undigested  starch,  which  should  have  been  acted 
on  by  the  saliva,  is  passed  on  to  the  stomach,  the  working 
of  the  intestinal  canal  is  disturbed.  Crusts  and  rusks  are 
thus  excellent  for  children. 

Incorporated  in  the  meal  there  ought  also  to  be  some 
food  which  will  leave  some  refuse  undigested  which  will 
stimulate  the  intestinal  canal.  If  all  the  food  is  completely 
digested  the  bowel  becomes  sluggish.  For  this  reason 
porridge,  whole-meal  bread,  and  fruit  ought  to  find  a  place 
in  a  child's  diet. 

Foods  suitable  for  children  from  two  to  six  are,  for 

Dinner 

I.     Meat — such  as  lamb  stew,  beef  stew. 

Or  Fish — cod,  flounders,  haddock,  halibut.     None 

of  these  should  ever  be  fried. 
Or  Vegetable  Soup — made  from  peas,  beans,  lentils, 

and  fresh  vegetables.     Scotch  broth. 
Or  Egg — soft  boiled,  poached,  or  scrambled. 

With  these  should  be  served  vegetables — carrots, 
beets,  cabbage,  sprouts,  onions,  potatoes, 
macaroni,  rice. 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL   107 

11.  Pudding — rice,  tapioca,  bread,  sago,  light  boiled 
puddings  such  as  ginger  and  lemon  (occasionally), 
junket,  cornflour  mould,  rice  mould,  custard — 
with  stewed  fruit,  apples,  prunes,  apricots,  etc. 

Some  of  the  dried  fruits,  properly  soaked  before  cooking, 
are  of  excellent  food  value.  Any  cabbage  given  must  be 
very  well  cooked.  Pork,  veal,  greasy  stews  should  not 
be  given. 

The  courses  should  be  arranged  with  due  regard  to 
their  food  value  and  their  digestibility.  With  the  soups 
crusts  of  bread  should  be  served.  A  slice  of  bread  would 
well  accompany  each  dinner. 

If  the  children  stay  for  tea,  variety  can  again  be  intro- 
duced into  a  simple  meal,  as  follows  :  Milk  or  cocoa,  with 
bread  and  margarine,  butter,  honey,  or  jam.  Neither 
coffee  nor  tea,  however  weak,  should  appear  on  the  table. 

No  definite  quantities  are  here  given.  Only  experience 
of  her  family  will  teach  the  cook  how  much  to  prepare. 

Children  seldom,  over-eat  if  given  a  simple,  nutritious 
diet.  They  should  be  taught  to  eat  what  is  put  before 
them.  Fat,  however,  is  tolerated  with  difficulty  by  some 
children.  A  wise  superintendent  will  modify  the  helpings 
given  to  the  capacity  of  the  child,  realizing  the  importance 
of  the  fat  soluble  vitamine  to  growth. 

Sleep 

After  a  midday  meal  the  children  should  be  put  to 
sleep  in  the  shade  outside,  or  in  a  well-ventilated,  quiet 
room.  Rough  canvas,  stretched  on  a  frame,  forms  a 
satisfactory  couch  which  can  be  readily  cleaned.  The 
head  should  rest  on  a  light  cushion,  and  the  child  should 
be  covered  by  a  wrap.  Children  should  be  expected  to 
lie  still  for  at  least  an  hour,  and  if  then  asleep  should  not 
be  wakened. 

The  mothers  should  be  urged  to  put  the  children  to  bed 
in  a  well-ventilated  room  by  6.30  p.m.,  in  order  that  they 
may  get  a  long  night's  rest. 


CHAPTER  IV 

MEDICAL  SUPERVISION 

EACH  child  who  enters  the  Nursery  School  should 
have  a  complete  physical  examination,  A  record 
of  this  should  be  made  and  kept.  This  record 
should  be  as  simple  as  possible,  but  it  should  show  the 
result  of  examination  on  entrance,  together  with  the 
family  history  and  an  account  of  the  home  conditions. 
Each  month,  if  not  more  frequently,  the  child  should 
be  measured  and  weighed,  and  his  progress  noted.  Any 
failure  to  gain  should  be  carefully  noted  by  the  superin- 
tendent, and  be  reported  to  the  medical  officer  on  his 
visit. 

Gain  in  weight  does  not  always  proceed  regularly.  In 
normal  children  it  is  generally  greater  in  autumn  than  in 
spring.  Gain  in  height  is  greater  in  summer  than  winter. 
Sometimes  for  weeks  there  may  be  no  gain,  and  then  a 
sudden  spurt  is  made.  A  regular  gain  is,  however,  more 
satisfactory. 

Tables  of  average  heights  and  weights  are  appended. 
These  are  the  tables  given  by  the  Anthropological  Society 
as  the  average  of  all  England  in  all  classes. 

1 08 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL  109 

Tables  of  Average  Heights  and  Weights  of  Children  from 
one  to  seven  years  of  age,  in  clothes  and  uithoiit  shoes. 


BOYS. 

AGE 

GIRLS. 

Height. 

Weight, 

Height. 

Weight. 

1 
ft.       ins.           St.     lbs. 

ft.       ins. 

St.       lbs. 

25^            I          4i 

I 

2         3i 

I          4 

2         cS.l            2         4i 

2 

2         7 

I        Hi 

2        II        1        2          6 

3 

2       10 

2        3J 

3         I       j       2        9 

4 

3        0 

2        8      ' 

3        4 

2        12 

5 

3        3 

2       II 

3        7 

3        ^ 

6 

3        6 

2       13:^ 

3       10 

3        71 

7 

3        8 

3        5i 

A  form  is  also  appended,  simply  drawn  up  to  show 
monthly  records  of  height  and  weight,  results  of  physical 
examination,  and  with  spaces  for  periodical  observations 
by  the  medical  officer.  On  the  reverse  side  is  the  family 
and  social  history. 

Much  more  elaborate  records  may  be  kept,  but  it  seems 
advisable  to  limit  the  secretarial  work  as  far  as  possible. 

In  weighing  children  it  is  important  to  see  that  the  scales 
are  accurate.  Children  should  be  weighed  at  the  same 
time  of  the  day  on  each  occasion.  The  garments  must 
also  be  similar  on  each  weighing  day  in  those  cases  where 
the  children  are  not  undressed  to  be  weighed. 

The  school  doctor  should  be  available  for  consultation 
on  any  occasion.  Routine  visits  should  be  paid  each  week 
for  the  examination  of  new  entrants  and  for  the  inspec- 
tion of  those  who  are  not  progressing  in  a  satisfactory 
way. 

The  superintendent  and  her  assistants  should  be  con- 
stantly observing  the  physical  condition  of  the  children, 


110        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

and  report  at  once  failing  health  to  the  medical  officer. 
The  healthy  child  is  bright  and  lively  and  of  good  colour. 
When  tired  after  a  certain  amount  of  play  he  becomes 
sleepy  and  quiet.  If  allowed  to  play  beyond  the  hour 
of  rest  he  becomes  fretful,  irritable,  and  bad-tempered. 
Frequently  bad  temper  means  nothing  but  nervous  ex- 
haustion. The  child  will  respond  to  the  stimulation  of 
attractive  objects,  to  companionship  of  his  own  age,  or 
that  of  older  people,  long  after  the  time  when  he  should 
normally  rest.  The  result  will  always  be  fretfulness  and 
irritability.  When  this  happens  once  in  a  way,  little  harm 
is  done,  but,  with  repetition,  the  nervous  reserve  of  the 
child  is  exhausted,  and,  his  nervous  system  being  in  a  state 
of  irritation,  his  rest  is  disturbed  ;  little  twitching  move- 
ments take  place  during  sleep,  the  child  cries  out  and  has 
terrifying  dreams.  When  awake,  he  is  either  highly 
nervous,  or  listless  and  spiritless ;  his  muscles  are  tremulous, 
and  he  may  develop  what  are  known  as  habit  spasms. 
For  example,  he  may  begin  to  blink  his  eyes  or  corrugate 
his  forehead. 

Examples  of  such  cases  are  seen  among  children  who 
frequent  kinemas,  and  are  thus  subjected  to  a  treble 
nervous  strain  : 

(i)  From  the  eyes. 

(2)  From  the  stimulation  of  many  new  ideas. 

(3)  From  loss  of  the  early  hours  of  sleep. 

Special  expressions  of  face  and  hand  in  cases  of  fatigue 
in  young  children  have  been  described  by  Dr.  Francis 
Warner.  Fatigue  may  be  due  either  to  over-nervous 
stimulation  or  to  failure  of  the  general  physical  condition. 
This  failure  may  be  due  to  lack  of  nourishment  or  to  the 
onset  of  disease.  The  two  diseases  which  are  most  often 
found  in  the  Nursery  School  of  big  towns  are  tuberculosis 
and  rickets. 

Tuberculosis  often  causes  an  appearance  of  ill-health, 
characterized  by  a  cloudy  complexion  and  a  toxic  or 
poisoned  appearance.  Sometimes,  however,  tubercular 
children  look  unnaturally  bright.  Such  children  are 
frequently  subject  to  febrile  attacks.    They  lose  weight 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL    111 

and  may  develop  enlarged  glands.  These  latter  always 
call  for  attention  and  treatment.  Enlarged  glands  are 
often  affected  by  the  tubercle  bacillus,  even  if  originally 
caused  by  poisoning  from  bad  teeth,  discharging  ears, 
lice  in  the  head,  or  septic  spots.  Enlarged  glands,  even 
if  tubercular,  often  respond  very  well  to  treatment  if  the 
primary  cause  of  enlargement  is  removed,  and  if  the 
patient  is  given  good  nourishment,  sunshine,  and  fresh  air. 

Rickety  children  are  often  short,  pale,  fat,  and  flabb3', 
with  curved  legs,  bowed  backs,  square  heads,  and  prominent 
abdomens.  These  children  improve  remarkably  with 
suitable  food,  fresh  air,  massage,  and  plenty  of  the  proper 
kind  of  exercise,  graduated  according  to  the  weight  of 
their  bodies  and  the  state  of  their  bones. 

The  medical  officer  and  the  superintendent  should  be 
in  touch  with  Schools  for  Mothers,  Infant  Welfare  Centres, 
the  family  doctors  of  the  districts,  and  the  hospitals  near, 
so  that  proper  treatment  may  be  at  once  secured  for  any 
child  who  may  need  it. 

The  Nursery  School  should  take  children  directl}'  from 
the  Maternity  and  Infant  Welfare  Centres,  and  should  work 
in  full  accord  with  them  and  their  medical  officers.  The 
knowledge  of  the  family  history  thus  gained  is  of  great  value. 

The  intelligent  and  careful  watchfulness  of  the  superin- 
tendent of  the  Nursery  School,  and  her  assistance  to  the 
mother,  who  is  often  at  a  loss  to  know  how  to  get  her  child 
proper  medical  advice,  and  even  more  at  a  loss  how  to 
follow  out  the  instructions  given  her,  will  be  invaluable 
in  checking  early  any  defects  found  by  the  medical  officer. 

Medical  examination,  without  opportunities  for  treat- 
ment either  at  the  school  clinic  or  without  collaboration 
with  other  remedial  agencies,  such  as  dental  clinics, 
hospitals,  etc.,  is  of  little  value.  Medical  inspection  is 
intended  not  only  to  detect  hut  to  prevent  disease. 

In  a  Nursery  School,  where  the  surroundings  are  healthy 
and  the  superintendent  and  the  mothers  are  intelligent 
and  careful,  the  work  of  the  medical  officer  is  generally 
confined  to  calling  attention  to  incipient  defects  and 
indicating  where  suitable  treatment  may  be  obtained. 


112        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Family.  Address : 


Name.              | 

Occupation. 

Employer. 

Wages. 

Father 

Mother 

Wage- 

Earning 

Children 

Total. 

Children 

No. 

Health. 

Sex.      Age. 

N 

Alive. 

Died  or 

Causes  of  Death. 

Stillborn  or 

Miscarriages 

bex. 

Age. 

General  Home  Conditions 


General  Health  of  Fa»:ily : 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL     113 


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CHAPTER  V 

INFECTIOUS   DISEASE 

THE  prevention  of  infectious  disease  is  one  of  the 
most  anxious  duties  of  the  staff  of  the  Nursery 
School.  After  they  are  weaned  little  children 
are  very  susceptible  to  infections.  The  younger  the  child, 
the  more  serious  are  the  after  effects  likely  to  be.  The 
immature  developing  frame  will  naturally  suffer  more 
than  the  more  developed  and  established  organism.  A 
slight  attack  of  measles  may  leave  more  serious  effects  on 
the  small  child  than  a  more  severe  attack  on  an  older 
child.  It  is  therefore  the  more  necessary  that  every 
precaution  should  be  taken — (i)  To  avoid  infection  in 
the  nursery ;  (2)  to  stop  the  spread,  once  infection  has 
occurred. 

By  infectious  disease  we  mean  not  only  the  acute  in- 
fectious fevers,  but  the  catarrhal  infections  which  spread 
from  child  to  child  by  the  diffusion  of  micro-organisms,  as 
well  as  the  contagious  impetiginous  skin  eruptions,  sore 
eyes,  etc.,  which  are  often  difficult  to  cure  in  poorly 
nourished  children.  We  must  also  consider  the  parasitic 
infections,  such  as  ringworm,  lice,  and  scabies.  It  is 
recognized  that  children  who  have  the  benefit  of  plenty  of 
fresh  air  and  sunshine  are  less  susceptible  than  others  to 
infectious  disease.  This  is  partly  because  the  children 
are  in  a  better  condition  to  deal  with  the  infectious  micro- 
organisms, and  partly  because  the  fresh  air  and  sunlight 
tend  to  destroy  micro-organisms. 

The  greatest  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  infected 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL    115 

children  entering  the  nursery.  For  this  reason  the  most 
highly  trained  person  on  the  staff,  i.e.  the  superintendent, 
should  receive  the  children  each  day  or  be  present  super- 
vising her  assistants.  It  is  not  enough  for  an  unskilled 
person  to  be  told  to  report  anything  she  observes  to  be 
wrong.  Each  child  must  be  examined  by  a  trained 
observer.  Here  comes  in  the  question  as  to  whether  the 
children  should  be  undressed  daily.  It  is  the  opinion  of 
the  writer  that  this  is  unnecessary.  The  skilled  assistant 
soon  notices  a  child  who  is  sickening.  The  onset  of  a  rash 
is  in  most  cases  preceded  by  a  longer  or  shorter  preliminary 
stage  in  which  the  child  is  sickening.  In  some  diseases, 
as  in  measles,  the  prodromal  or  preliminary  stage  before 
the  rash  appears  is  the  most  infectious  period  of  the  disease. 
The  superintendent  then,  whilst  the  outdoor  things  are 
being  removed  and  the  overall  is  being  put  on,  ought  to 
examine  the  face  and  neck  of  the  child.  If  there  is  the 
slightest  cause  for  suspicion,  the  chest  ought  also  to  be 
examined,  and  the  temperature  taken.  A  suggestion  of 
sore  throat  ought  to  lead  to  careful  investigation,  and 
complete  separation  of  the  child  from  the  others  pending 
developments. 

Running  colds,  sore  eyelids,  any  lumps  such  as  suggest 
enlarged  glands  or  abscesses,  sores  on  hands  or  feet,  ought 
to  be  at  once  attended  to,  according  to  the  instructions 
left  for  such  cases  by  the  medical  officer,  and  a  very  free 
use  made  of  the  isolation  room  for  suspicious  cases. 

It  may  be  necessary  to  explain  that  the  acute  infectious 
diseases  go  through  the  following  stages  : 

(i)  A  period  in  which  the  child,  after  exposure  to  in- 
fection, is  said  to  be  incubating  the  disease,  and  during 
which  he  shows  httle,  if  any,  sign  of  illness.  This  is 
succeeded  by :  (2)  a  prodromal  or  invasion  period,  when 
the  child  is  not  well;  (3)  an  eruptive  period,  when  the 
rash  appears ;  (4)  a  convalescent  period,  during  which 
quarantine  has  to  be  maintained. 

The  following  are  the  signs  of  the  onset  of  the  more 
general  infectious  diseases  : 


11«        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Chickenpox 

Chickenpox  has  a  very  slight  invasion  period.  Often  the 
eruption  is  the  first  observed  sign.  Sometimes  there  is 
malaise  and  crossness,  and  there  may  be  a  well  marked 
temperature  and  headache  for  a  day  or  two,  but  this  is  not 
usual ;  usually  the  bright  red  spots  on  the  back,  which 
disappear  on  stretching  the  skin,  and  which  contain  clear 
fluid  within  twelve  hours,  are  the  first  signs  noted  These 
spots  come  on  face,  scalp,  body,  and  limbs.  They  come 
out  in  crops,  and  often  the  spots,  the  blisters  (or  vesicles) 
and  the  scabs  into  which  the  vesicles  dry,  are  to  be  seen 
all  at  the  same  time  on  the  body. 


Smallpox 

Smallpox,  with  which  bad  chickenpox  may  be  confused, 
is  rarely  found  in  a  vaccinated  Nursery  School  child. 
In  this  disease  the  invasion  period  is  three  or  four  days, 
and  the  signs  of  illness  marked  with  backache,  fever,  and 
vomiting.  The  spots  all  come  out  at  once.  They  appear 
first  on  the  face  and  wrist. 

Diphtheria 

Diphtheria  gives  rise  to  a  sore  throat,  about  which  the 
child  may  complain.  He  may  just  sit  and  look  miserable, 
refusing  to  swallow  anything.  The  pain,  however,  may 
not  be  great  and  swallowing  may  be  easy.  The  glands 
at  the  angle  of  the  jaw  are  generally  enlarged  and  tender. 

The  temperature  is  raised,  but  may  not  be  more 
than  100°  to  ioi°  F.,  even  if  the  child  is  very  ill.  The 
pulse  is  much  quicker  than  would  be  expected,  and 
the  child  generally  looks  grey  and  ill  and  languid  out 
of  proportion  to  the  temperature.  On  examination,  the 
throat  looks  red,  and  on  one  or  other  tonsil,  or  on  the 
soft  palate,  a  grey  tough-looking  membrane  may  be  seen. 

Fear  of  infection  is  past  only  when  no  diphtheria 
organisms  can  be  found  in  nose  or  throat.    Some  people 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL     117 

continue  to  be  carriers  for  a  long  time,  spreading  the 
disease  when  they  themselves  are  apparently  well.  For 
this  reason,  when  infection  has  occurred,  it  is  usual  to 
examine  swabs  taken  from  the  throats  of  all  who  were  in 
contact  with  the  case. 


Measles 

Measles  is  the  disease  which  shares  with  whooping 
cough  the  odium  of  causing  the  most  disaster  to  children 
of  Nursery  School  age.  The  onset  of  both  diseases  is 
insidious.  They  are  most  infectious  in  the  stage  when 
they  are  most  difficult  to  diagnose.  They  are  both  serious 
in  the  way  in  which  they  affect  the  system  at  the  time, 
and  both  are  apt  to  hamper  the  child  permanently  by  the 
deafness  or  bronchitis  they  leave  behind. 

A  child  in  the  prodromal  stage  of  measles  suffers  from 
catarrhal  symptoms,  sneezing,  running  nose  and  eyes, 
fever,  and  a  raised  temperature.  The  presence  of  bluish- 
white  spots  on  the  inner  side  of  the  cheeks  or  lips,  known 
as  Koplik's  spots,  helps  to  differentiate  measles  from  a 
common  cold  in  the  days  before  the  rash  appears. 

In  measles  a  double  rise  in  the  temperature  often  occurs, 
and  the  knowledge  of  such  a  possibility  should  prevent  a 
superintendent  being  lulled  into  security.  The  child, 
being  feverish,  and  with  a  cold,  may  have  a  temperature 
of  102°  F,  This  may  fall  to  normal  in  the  morning,  only 
to  rise  again  within  twelve  hours,  and  then  stay  up  till 
the  rash  appears. 

On  the  soft  palate  and  roof  of  the  mouth  small  red  points 
may  be  observed  a  day  or  two  before  the  rash  appears. 
The  rash  consists  of  raised  red  points,  quickly  becoming 
darker  and  papular,  and  running  into  patches,  with  a 
crescentic  margin.  The  spots  are  first  observed  on  the  fore- 
head, round  the  ears,  and  on  the  face.  The  rash  spreads 
over  the  body  within  twenty-four  hours.  The  infection 
period  ceases  when  the  rash  is  completely  gone  and  all 
discharges  from  throat  and  nose  are  absent. 


118        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

German  Measles 

German  Measles  is  characterized  generally  by  slighter 
prodromal  symptoms.  Sneezing  is  not  a  marked  symptom, 
but  generally  occurs.  There  may  be  some  rise  in  tempera- 
ture and  malaise.  The  rash  is  a  brighter  red  than  in 
measles,  but  more  rose-coloured  than  in  scarlet  fever. 
The  differential  diagnosis  is  sometimes  difficult.  The 
rash  is  of  a  scarlet  variety,  more  punctate  than  the  papular 
form  of  measles,  but  the  spots  are  not  so  discrete  as  in 
scarlet,  and  the  oral  triangle  or  portion  of  skin  round  the 
mouth,  which  is  never  affected  by  a  scarlet  rash,  is  affected 
in  German  Measles.  There  are  not  the  crescentic  outlines 
which  are  present  in  ordinary  measles.  The  eyes  are 
generally  infected,  and  the  glands  at  the  back  of  the  neck 
are  enlarged  and  tender.  The  throat  may  be  very  sore, 
and  pain  on  swallowing  may  be  marked,  but  less  than 
would  be  expected  in  a  scarlatina  of  equal  severity. 

Mumps 

Mumps  may  only  be  discovered  by  the  swelling  on  the 
side  of  the  face,  running  from  the  ear  to  the  angle  of  the 
mouth.  There  may,  however,  have  been  malaise  for  two 
or  three  days,  and  this  should  be  watched  for  in  the  case  of 
children  who  have  been  exposed  to  the  infection.  These 
latter  may  show  languor,  loss  of  appetite,  with  fever, 
and  may  complain  of  shooting  pains  over  the  side  of  the 
face  and  into  the  ear. 

Nose  bleeding  and  pain  on  eating  are  also  observed. 
Isolation  may  cease  when  three  weeks  have  passed,  if  the 
swelling  has  subsided  for  a  week. 

Scarlet  Fever 

Scarlet  Fever,  though  a  serious  disease  for  the  young 
infant,  is  not  in  some  respects  as  harassing  to  the  authorities 
as  is  measles  or  whooping  cough.  The  incubation  period 
is  short  and  the  invasion  is  sudden,  the  child  not  being  as 
a  rule  infectious  till  it  is  obviously  ill  and  unfit  for  school. 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL     119 

Once  infection  has  occurred,  disinfection  and  segregation 
for  five  days  ought  to  Hmit  the  spread.  Unfortunately, 
the  micro-organism  is  exceedingly  resistant  and  vital,  and 
can  be  carried  in  a  hundred  ways,  by  books,  toys,  clothing, 
animals,  etc.,  and  fresh  outbreaks  after  what  has  been 
considered  careful  disinfection  have  frequently  occurred. 
Moreover,  as  a  mild  case  can  transmit  most  virulent 
infection  to  a  susceptible  subject,  it  is  of  the  highest 
importance  to  isolate  at  once  any  suspicious  case.  A 
sudden  attack  of  vomiting,  together  with  a  raised  tempera- 
ture and  sore  throat,  must  be  considered  suspicious. 
The  rash  appears  almost  at  once  (within  a  day)  on  neck, 
chest,  shoulders,  and  forehead.  It  looks  like  very  fine 
scarlet  points  on  a  pink  ground,  and  always  the  white 
area  round  the  red  lips  presents  on  a  face  flushed,  but  not 
covered  with  rash,  a  typical  appearance.  If  the  fingers 
are  drawn  along  the  skin,  a  white  line  which  lasts  a  few 
minutes  is  produced.  The  eyes  are  bright  and  neither 
have  catarrh  nor  are  they  infected. 

On  the  first  day  of  the  disease  the  tongue  is  coated  with 
a  creamy  fur.  Infection  is  only  over  when  all  discharges 
from  the  nose,  eyes  and  throat  have  ceased. 

Typhoid  Fever 

Typhoid  Fever  need  not  entail  any  description.  The 
sickening  child  with  headache,  loss  of  appetite,  furred 
tongue  and  a  rising  temperature,  ought  in  any  case  to  be 
referred  to  the  medical  officer,  who  would  keep  the  child 
under  medical  observation  till  the  diagnosis  is  made. 

Whooping  Cough  or  Pertussis 

The  organism  in  this  case  is  present  in  the  nose  and 
throat,  and  is  spread  by  the  spray  from  the  child's  cough. 
It  is  astonishing  how  far  such  spray  can  be  carried  by  the 
air  and  air  currents.  It  is  difficult  in  many  cases  to  trace 
infection  because  of  this. 

The  incubation  period  is  from  five  to  fourteen  days. 
The  onset  begins  with  a  coryza  or  cold  in  the  nose  and 


120        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

running  at  the  eyes.  There  is  generally  malaise,  very 
slight  rise  of  temperature,  loss  of  appetite,  and  a  dry 
cough,  worse  towards  night,  which,  despite  the  fact  that 
there  are  few,  if  any,  physical  signs  in  the  chest,  and 
despite  treatment,  gets  worse  after  about  seven  to  ten 
days.  The  cough  comes  on  in  paroxysms.  The  child 
appears  quite  well,  is  running  about  and  playing,  when 
suddenly  it  gets  red  in  the  face  and  begins  coughing  in  an 
explosive  way.  Later  a  characteristic  inspiratory  spasm 
with  a  stridulant  whoop  occurs.  The  cough  generally 
ends  with  a  little  mucus  being  brought  up.  Frequently 
the  attacks  are  so  severe  that  they  end  in  vomiting  and 
absolute  exhaustion.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the 
whoop  lasts  long  after  the  infection  is  over,  and  may  recur 
with  every  succeeding  cold  for  some  months.  Further, 
a  somewhat  similar  cough  occurs  in  some  cases  of  chronic 
bronchitis,  particularly  with  inflammation  of  the  bronchial 
glands. 

Occasionally  a  child  suffering  from  pertussis  may  not 
get  the  characteristic  whoop,  but  only  have  the  spasmodic 
cough.  When  the  little  dry  cough,  so  persistent  in 
character,  is  becoming  spasmodic  in  type,  we  have  the 
most  infectious  period  of  the  disease. 

It  is  impossible  to  say  with  certainty  when  the  child 
ceases  to  be  infectious.  There  appears  to  be  no  doubt  that 
many  whooping  children  are  quite  free  from  infection. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  some  cases  of  infectious 
disease  can  run  their  course  and  the  child  be  back  in  the 
Nursery  School  before  the  other  children  exposed  to  the 
infection  have  developed  the  disease,  as  in  slight  cases  of 
mumps,  chickenpox,  and  German  measles. 

Prevention  of  the  Spread  of  Infection 

After  infection  has  occurred  steps  must  be  taken  to 
prevent  the  spread  of  the  disease.  If  the  Nursery  School 
is  not  closed,  special  precautions  must  be  taken  to  prevent 
a  second  crop  of  cases  being  produced  by  infection  from 
the  original  contacts.    The  latter  must  be  most  carefully 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL     121 

watched  for  early  signs  towards  the  end  of  the  period  of 
incubation. 

The  writer  has  found  a  modification  of  the  Milnes 
System  of  preventing  infection  very  valuable.  When  an 
outbreak  is  expected  all  contact  should  be  treated  by 
rubbing  the  neck  and  chest  with  eucalyptus  oil,  and  about 
ten  drops  should  be  sprinkled  on  the  overall. 

It  is  true  that  the  smell  of  eucalyptus  is  disagreeable, 
but  it  is  clean  and  fresh  and  much  preferable  to  a  further 
outbreak  of  the  disease.  Those  who  have  become  infected 
from  the  first  case,  if  their  prodromal  symptoms  escape 
the  vigilant  eye  of  the  assistants  and  come  out  in  a  rash, 
are  less  likely  to  affect  the  remainder  who  are  thus  protected. 

Disinfection  of  premises,  when  infectious  disease  has 
occurred,  consists  in  the  thorough  cleaning  of  the  rooms. 
Where  notifiable  disease  has  occurred,  the  Public  Health 
authorities  will  act  according  to  their  recognized  procedure. 
Schools  should  be  so  planned  and  constructed  that  there 
are  no  places  where  dust  and  dirt  can  accumulate.  Chemical 
disinfection  is  unnecessary ;  indeed,  it  often  gives  a  fallacious 
impression  of  security.  A  thorough  cleansing  with  soap 
and  water,  and  the  free  admission  of  air  and,  if  possible, 
sunshine,  is  the  best  form  of  disinfection.  Clothes  should 
be  disinfected  in  specially  constructed  disinfectors,  where 
they  can  be  exposed  to  the  fumes  of  formalin  or  sulphur, 
steam  or  heat. 

If  it  is  thought  necessary  to  use  a  chemical  disinfectant, 
it  is  useless  unless  sufficiently  concentrated.  A  spray  of 
one  in  forty  of  a  forty  per  cent,  solution  of  formic  aldehyde 
may  be  used,  or  three  or  four  per  cent,  carbolic  acid  may 
be  washed  over  the  room. 


Infections  are  said  to  be  contagious  when  they  can  be 
communicated  from  individual  to  individual  by  direct 
contact.  Many  diseases  which  do  not  cause  acute  illness 
are  contagious.  Such  are  many  of  the  skin  affections  to 
which  children  are  liable.     Any  sore  place  in  a  child,  any 


122        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

cut  or  scratch,  is  liable  to  become  infected  with  germs 
causing  suppuration — that  is,  pustules,  boils,  or  abscesses 
are  formed.  If  the  pus  or  matter  from  these  is  carried 
either  by  the  fingers  or  by  the  nails  to  another  child, 
particularly  if  the  second  child  is  run  down  or  anaemic, 
he  is  liable  to  contract  spots  of  the  same  nature.  In  this 
way  impetigo  contagiosa  often  arises.  Only  absolute 
cleanliness,  and  great  care  taken  in  keeping  separate  the 
washing  materials  of  each  child,  and  also  the  isolation  of 
infected  children,  prevent  the  rapid  spread  of  this  skin 
affection. 

Similarly,    sore   eyes    are   exceedingly   infectious,    the 
infection  being  carried  by  towels  or  by  actual  contact. 

The  parasitic  diseases  most  often  found  are  the  following  : 


Parasitic  Diseases 

Scabies  is  caused  by  a  small  insect  which  burrows  under 
the  skin  and  causes  intense  irritation,  particularly  after 
the  children  are  warm  in  bed.  This  leads  to  scratching 
and  consequent  infection  from  the  microbes,  causing 
suppuration.  Between  the  fingers  and  in  the  bend  of  the 
elbow  and  armpit  lines  are  found  where  the  burrow  is 
formed,  and  numerous  pustules  result  from  scratching. 

Body  lice  and  fleas  can  be  treated  by  bathing  the  child 
and  stoving  the  clothes,  but  the  child  is  liable  to  get 
reinfected  at  home. 

Head  lice  are  very  often  found  where  the  mothers  are 
neghgent.  They  will  often  attribute  the  presence  of  these 
parasites  to  the  delicacy  of  the  child.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  delicate  children  seem  to  be  more  easily  affected,  but 
their  presence  always  means  neglect.  Nits  on  the  hair 
are  found  particularly  behind  the  ears,  and  are  to  be 
distinguished  from  dandruff  by  their  firm  adherence  to  the 
hair  and  their  pear-hke  shape,  attached  to  the  side  of 
instead  of  encircling  the  hair  shaft.  These  nits  are  the  ova 
of  the  louse,  and  therefore  a  sure  sign  of  the  presence  of 
lice,  and  as  long  as  they  are  there  a  source  of  reinfection. 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL    123 

Washing  the  head  in  paraffin  or  soaking  it  with  sassafras 
oil  kills  the  nits.  They  may  be  removed  by  combing  with 
a  fine  comb  dipped  in  hot  vinegar,  which  loosens  the 
material  attaching  the  nit  to  the  hair,  or  by  manual 
removal. 

No  standard  of  cleanliness  is  sufficient  which  permits  a 
nit  to  remain.  The  custom  of  having  the  hair  bobbed 
is  best  for  children  in  the  Nursery  School. 

Ringworm  is  caused  by  a  minute  fungus  growing  on 
the  skin.  Spores  get  detached  and  infect  other  places 
or  children.  It  can  be  recognized  by  ring-like  patches 
with  raised  margins.  The  rings  gradually  grow.  In  the 
head  the  spores  get  into  the  hairs,  which  break  off  and 
form  round  bald  patches.  This  disease  can  be  considered 
cured  only  when  the  hairs  fail  to  show  the  presence  of 
spores.  Treatment  of  ringworm  of  the  scalp  is  often  very 
tiresome  and  slow.  X-rays  seem  to  be  the  quickest  and 
most  efficient  method  of  treatment  in  persistent  cases. 


124        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

TABLE   OF   INFECTION   AND    QUARANTINE. 


Disease. 


Scarlet 
Fever 


Diphtheria 


Chickenpo: 


Measles 


German 
Measles 


Mumps 


Whooping 
Cough 


Typhoid 


Duration 

of 
Infection. 


5  to  8  weeks. 
Ceasing  when 
the  child  is  free 
from  discharge 
of  nose  or  ears 
or  from  sore 
places. 


28  days  at  least 


4  to  5  weeks. 


3  to  4  weeks. 


2  to  3  weeks. 


21  days. 


6     weeks     from 
beginning         of 

Whoop. 


4  to  5  weeks  or 
longer. 


Date  at  which 

School  Attendance 

may  be  resumed. 


Not  less  than  8  weeks 
from  beginning  of  rash. 


Not  less  than  6  weeks, 
and  not  then  if  sore 
throat  or  discharge  of 
nose,  ears,  etc.  Swab 
should  be  negative 
three  times. 


When  every  scab  is  off. 


Not  less  than  4  weeks 
from  beginning. 


3    to    4     weeks     from 
beginning. 


4  weeks  trom  begin- 
ning, if  all  swelling  has 
been  down  for  a  week. 

8  weeks. 


When    sufficiently 
strong. 


Duration  ot 
Quarantine 
of  Children 
exposed  to 
infection. 


10  days 


12  days. 


20  days. 
16  days. 

21  days. 
24  days. 
21  days. 

23  days. 


CHAPTER  VI 

MINOR  ACCIDENTS 

IT  seems  advisable  that  in  a  book  of  this  type  a  small 
space  should  be  devoted  to  various  small  accidents 
which    befall    Nursery   School    children,   and  with 
which  the  superintendent  will  have  to  deal. 

Bruises 

The  most  common  accident  will  be  bruising.  Falls, 
bangs  into  furniture,  or  other  catastrophes  due  to  unco- 
ordinated muscular  effort  or  miscalculation  of  space,  will 
inevitably  occur. 

Bruises  are  the  result  of  a  blow,  causing  haemorrhage 
into  the  soft  parts,  owing  to  the  breaking  of  the  blood 
vessels.  In  the  same  category  are  sprains,  followed  by 
sudden  swelling,  such  as  we  get  at  the  ankle,  where  a  twist 
may  cause  the  stretching,  perhaps  breaking,  of  muscular 
fibres,  injury  of  tendons,  and  effusion  into  the  soft  parts. 

In  all  these  cases  the  first  step  is  to  prevent,  as  far  as  may 
be,  further  bleeding  and  consequent  swelling.  Bathing 
the  parts  with  cold  water  will  contract  the  blood  vessels 
and  slow  the  circulation.  The  child  will  probably  be 
frightened.  It  must  be  soothed,  or  its  struggles  will  increase 
the  haemorrhage.  For  some  minutes  the  parts  may  be 
bandaged  with  a  cold  water  bandage.  Gentle  massage, 
administered  next  day,  will  help  to  remove  the  bruises 
more  quickly. 

125 


126        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

Cuts 

Wherever  there  is  abrasion  of  the  surface  or  any  external 
bleeding,  every  effort  should  be  made  to  keep  the  parts 
quite  clean  in  a  surgical  sense.  The  Nursery  School  ought 
to  keep  a  store  of  lint,  gauze,  and  bandages  in  a  scrupulously 
clean  metal  case,  scissors,  dressing  forceps,  and  some  dis- 
infectant, such  as  Lysol,  and  a  small  bottle  of  tincture  of 
iodine.  When  any  part  is  bleeding,  it  should  be  bathed 
with  cold  water,  and  any  dirt  should  be  washed  away. 
The  hands  of  the  attendant  should  first  be  carefully  washed 
in  lotion  containing  one  per  cent,  of  Lysol.  The  injured 
part  can  then  be  painted  with  iodine  and  a  simple  dressing 
of  gauze  applied. 

Haemorrhage 

In  cases  of  serious  haemorrhage  a  doctor  should  be 
summoned  at  once,  the  child  being  kept  as  quiet  as  possible 
in  the  meantime,  with  the  injured  limb  elevated.  Pressure 
can  be  applied  to  the  bleeding  spot  by  means  of  a  firm  pad 
placed  over  clean  gauze.  Nose  bleeding  is  sometimes 
troublesome,  and  the  patients  and  attendants  often  get  very 
much  frightened.  Cold  water  should  be  applied  to  the 
nose  and  to  the  back  of  the  neck,  the  child  being  placed 
upright  on  a  chair  with  head  thrown  back.  It  is  not  often 
necessary  to  plug  the  nose,  but  if  any  alum  or  hazeline  is 
at  hand  it  can  be  added  to  water  and  snuffed  up  the  nose. 

Sprains 

Any  serious  injury,  such  as  a  severe  sprain,  suspected 
fracture  or  dislocation,  should  be  treated  by  giving  absolute 
rest  to  the  part  till  medical  help  can  be  obtained. 

Burns 

Bums  should  be  treated  with  carron  oil,  or  picric  acid 
if  that  is  available.  If  nothing  else  is  handy,  flour  may  be 
dusted  on,  and  the  part  thus  protected  from  the  air. 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL     127 

Slight  burns  or  scalds  are  relieved  by  bathing  with  a  weak 
alkaline  solution. 


Fretfulness 

Fretfulness  should  always  be  taken  as  a  sign  of  either 
illness  or  nervous  overstrain.  No  undue  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  fretful  child,  but  opportunity  should  be 
afforded  for  quietness  and  rest,  when  it  will  quite  frequently 
drop  off  to  sleep. 

Fits 

Fits  may  cause  alarm.  In  these  the  child  may  have 
convulsive  movements  and  then  become  rigid  or  flaccid. 
The  patient  must  always  be  taken  away  from  the  other 
children,  and  must  be  prevented  from  hurting  himself. 
He  is  very  likely  to  bite  his  tongue,  and  should  therefore 
have  a  thickly  folded  handkerchief  or  a  cork  placed  between 
the  teeth,  so  that  they  cannot  be  clenched.  Children 
sometimes  become  rigid  with  attacks  of  temper.  Firmness 
should  in  these  cases  be  adopted.  The  child  should  always 
be  removed  from  the  others  and  allowed  to  be  quiet  after 
he  has  recovered  from  the  attack. 

Foreign  Bodies 

Children  often  get  foreign  bodies  into  some  part  of 
themselves.  A  button,  bean,  marble,  or  fruit-stone  may 
become  suddenly  lodged  in  the  larynx.  It  is  advisable 
to  put  the  finger  as  far  down  the  throat  as  possible  to  try 
and  hook  it  out.  The  irritation  to  the  throat  thus  pro- 
duced often  causes  violent  retching,  which  will  be  sufficient 
to  dislodge  the  obstruction.  Sometimes,  if  the  child  is 
held  by  the  legs  in  an  inverted  position,  or  its  back  smacked, 
the  foreign  body  drops  out. 

If  a  bead  is  pushed  into  the  ear,  it  is  better  to  leave  it 
for  a  doctor  to  remove  as  the  drum  of  the  ear  is  so  easily 
injured.  If  it  is  a  pea  or  any  vegetable  material,  it  is  in- 
advisable to  syringe,  as  the  water  may  cause  it  to  swell. 


128        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

If  the  object  is  up  the  nose,  a  pair  of  forceps  may  enable 
it  to  be  removed,  or  sneezing  may  dislodge  it. 

Dust  in  the  eye  will  cause  great  irritation.  On  no 
account  must  the  eye  be  rubbed.  If  the  nose  is  well  blown 
the  dust  may  come  out,  or  it  may  get  washed  out  with  the 
tears  resulting  from  the  irritation.  If  the  upper  lid  is 
pulled  over  the  lower  one,  the  lower  lashes  may  brush  it 
out.  If  it  still  remains,  the  lid  may  be  turned  back,  by 
holding  the  eyelashes  firmly — the  speck  is  then  seen  lying 
on  the  inner  lining.  A  corner  of  a  soft  handkerchief  should 
be  used  to  remove  it.  If  there  is  any  irritation  left,  a  drop 
of  castor  oil  put  in  the  eye  will  cause  great  relief,  especially 
if  a  handkerchief  pad  is  put  over  the  eye  and  firmly 
bandaged  on. 

Splinters  and  thorns  should  be  removed  by  pulling  them 
out.  If  they  are  broken  off  close  to  the  skin,  and  are  just 
under  the  top  layer  of  the  skin,  they  may  often  be  removed 
by  passing  a  needle  at  right  angles  just  under  them,  at  a 
sufficient  distance  from  the  end  to  enable  a  forceps  to 
grasp  the  released  free  end,  and  thus  abstract  it.  In  all 
such  cases  strict  regard  must  be  paid  to  perfect  cleanliness. 
The  needle  should  be  boiled  and  iodine  painted  on  the 
injured  place  to  keep  the  spot  as  aseptic  as  possible. 


Stings 

Stings  of  bees  and  wasps,  or  nettles,  should  be  washed 
with  hot  water ;  the  sting,  if  possible,  should  be  abstracted, 
and  a  solution  of  bicarbonate  of  soda  should  be  applied, 
or  a  solution  of  ammonia  can  be  used.  An  application 
of  Pond's  Extract  is  soothing  after  wasps'  stings. 


Dog  Bite 

A  dog  bite  should  also  be  treated  with  hot  water  to 
induce  as  much  haemorrhage  as  may  be.  Medical  aid 
should  be  obtained  as  soon  as  possible. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE    TRAINING    OF    THE    STAFF    IN    HYGIENE 

FROM  the  above  account  of  the  child  and  the  Nursery 
School,  it  is  evident  that  an  adequate  training  in 
the  bodily  care  of  children  must  find  a  place  in  the 
curriculum  of  a  Training  College  for  Superintendents  and 
Assistants  in  Nursery  Schools.  But  the  words  ' '  school"  and 
"  teachers,"  as  applied  to  the  Nursery  School,  must  be 
dissociated  from  their  old  meaning  if  we  are  to  make  our 
Nursery  Schools  successful.  It  is  a  satisfaction  to  note 
that  the  term  teacher  is  eliminated  from  the  Board's 
regulations.  Experience  shows  that  many  who  are  hoping 
to  take  part  in  the  Nursery  School  movement,  even  as 
enthusiasts,  continue  to  hold  the  idea  that  they  are  techni- 
cally to  be  teachers,  rather  than  specially  trained  care- 
takers of  the  children.  The  need  of  a  new  term  is  badly 
felt:  "nurse"  connotes  sickness  or  nursing  duties,  and 
"  teacher"  connotes  not  only  mental  trainer,  but  actual 
instructor.  What  we  want  is  some  one  born  with  the 
instinct  of  understanding  and  the  capacity  for  handling 
the  infant,  trained  in  the  bodily  care  of  the  young  child, 
and  who  considers  no  task  too  menial  and  no  detail  of 
attendance  too  unpleasant.  Such  a  woman  must  be 
sufficiently  trained  in  physiology  and  psychology  to 
know  the  dangers  of  over-stimulating  the  delicate, 
newly  developing  nerve  cells  and  fibres  which  arc  just 
learning  to  co-ordinate  muscular  action.  She  must 
know  enough  about  the  desires  of  child-life,  and  the 
need  of  self-expression,  to  be  able  to  supply  suitable 
9  129 


130        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

stimuli  of  sound,  touch,  sight,  smell,  and  action,  and 
to  present  suitable  material  by  means  of  which  the 
child  may  give  vent  to  his  desire  for  self-expression.  The 
colleges  which  are  training  workers  are  alive  to  some  of 
these  needs,  but  it  is  also  necessary  that  they  should  see 
the  importance  of  training  their  students  in  the  handling 
and  tending  of  these  very  young  children.  It  seems  to  the 
writer  imperative  that  training  in  some  well-regulated 
institutional  nursery  or  hospital  is  essential,  for  the 
following  reasons : 

I.  The  Nursery  School  superintendent  and  assistant 
must  learn  to  deal  with,  not  one,  but  many  children,  in  an 
orderly  and  systematic  way.  Nurseries  where  the  nurse 
has  individual  care  of  one  or  two  children  only  are  of 
little  value  as  a  training  school  to  an  assistant  who  will 
have  to  cope  daily  with,  not  one  or  two,  but  a  group  of 
children.  In  the  former  case  the  assistant,  having  been 
accustomed  to  only  one  or  two  children,  finds  it  difficult 
to  deal  expeditiously  and  carefully  with  ten  or  twelve. 

II.  In  hospitals  large  numbers  of  dehcate  children 
have  to  be  washed,  dressed,  tended,  and  fed  in  an  orderly 
and  methodical  manner.  It  is  true  that  the  children  in 
hospital  are  sick,  and  it  may  be  urged  that  we  want  students 
trained  for  the  care  of  the  normal  child.  But  women  who 
can  tend  a  sick  child  can  tend  a  healthy  one,  and  it  must 
be  remembered  that  it  is  the  delicate  children  who  will 
often  gravitate  to  the  Nursery  School, 

III.  The  training  in  tidying  up  the  ward,  and  in  the 
menial  work  a  nurse  must  do,  is  invaluable  to  the  Nursery 
School  worker,  who  will  be  obliged  to  do  disagreeable  tasks, 
even  if  well  supplied  with  domestic  help.  To  gain  success 
in  a  Nursery  School  the  cleanliness  must  be  that  of  the 
hospital  ward,  and  the  attention  to  the  physical  needs  of 
the  children  that  which  the  most  scrupulous  mother  in  a 
good  family  gives  to  her  charges. 

IV.  A  knowledge  of  hospital  out-patient  condition  and 
the  signs  of  incipient  ill-health  will  be  a  help,  and  make 
her  a  much  more  intelligent  colleague  to  the  school  doctor. 

V.  Training  in  the  preparation  of  infants'  food  and 


HYGIENE  OF  THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL     J31 

diets  of  delicate  and  convalescent  infants  is  particularly 
advisable,  inasmuch  as  the  Board  clearly  encourages  the 
provision  of  school  meals  in  Nursery  Schools. 

It  has  been  urged  that  these  matters  can  be  taught  in 
lectures  or  acquired  by  visits  to  institutions.  That  is 
absolutely  fallacious.  Only  the  constant  repetition  of 
these  duties  under  careful  superintendence  can  be  of 
any  value.  It  is  practical  knowledge  which  is  needed,  and 
such  knowledge  can  only  come  with  experience. 

The  future  superintendent  of  Nursery  Schools  should 
also  be  in  touch  with  the  work  which  is  being  done  in 
Schools  for  Mothers,  Day  Nurseries  and  Children's  Hospitals, 
Convalescent  Homes,  etc.,  and  hospital  hfe  will  be  a  link 
between  the  workers  in  these  different  spheres.  Her 
experience  will  thus  greatly  help  her  sociological  value 
in  the  district  in  which  her  school  is  situated.  Both  the 
nurse  and  the  teacher  are  likely  at  an  early  age  to  get 
into  their  own  professional  rut.  A  scheme  which  provides 
such  an  admixture  of  different  types  has,  in  hopsitals  and 
training  colleges  where  the  experiment  has  been  tried, 
already  proved  to  be  an  advantage  to  both. 

Nursery  Schools,  as  we  have  said  before,  are  in  the 
experimental  stage.  If  they  are  successful  they  will  be 
of  inestimable  help  to  mother,  teacher,  and  the  State  ; 
but  there  are  many  pitfalls,  and  their  success  will  depend 
mainly  on  the  proper  attitude  of  the  superintendent. 
Unless  meticulous  care  in  cleanliness  of  person  and  sur- 
roundings is  maintained,  sickness,  and  particularly  infec- 
tious disease,  will  be  rife  among  children,  at  an  age  when 
illness  leaves  lasting  effects. 

To  supply  the  proper  training  in  the  handling  of  the 
child,  to  impress  on  the  student  the  importance  of  attention 
to  the  formation  of  regular  hygienic  habits,  to  inculcate 
methods  of  order  and  the  medical  standard  of  cleanliness, 
is  work  for  which,  at  present,  only  the  hospital  is  available. 
Efforts  should,  then,  be  made  to  get  the  hospitals  to  regard 
with  sympathy  the  needs  of  these  students,  and  to  open 
their  doors  to  them  for  short  courses  of  training.  Nursery 
School  students  are  generally  very  keen  and  intelligent, 


182         NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

and  if  they  also  take  advantage  of  the  opportunities 
which  hospitals  may  afford,  there  is  great  hope  for  the 
future  of  the  Nursery  School. 

The  inclusion  of  these  courses  of  training  will  in  no  wise 
make  the  nursery  superintendent  capable  of  taking  the 
part  of  the  school  nurse.  The  school  nurse  with  a  know- 
ledge of  massage  will  be  needed  in  all  the  special  schools 
for  delicate  children,  but  for  other  schools  a  fully  trained 
nurse  could  be  attached  to  more  than  one  school,  and  attend 
to  cases  of  real  sickness,  such  as  discharging  ears,  impetigo, 
rickets  needing  massage,  and  minor  complaints  which 
require  a  nurse's  attention. 

All  that  is  wanted  from  the  hospital  part  of  the  superin- 
tendent's training  is  practical  skill  in  the  handling  of  the 
child,  capacity  to  recognize  the  aihng  child,  appreciation 
of  the  meaning  of  hospital  cleanliness  and  tidiness,  and  a 
friendly  appreciation  for  and  recognition  of  the  importance 
of  medical  care. 


PART  V 

THE   STAFF   OF  THE  NURSERY  SCHOOL  AND 
THE  TRAINING   OF   SUPERINTENDENTS 

By  the  Editor. 

IT  is  impossible  to  study  the  problem  of  the  Nursery 
School  for  long  without  becoming  convinced  that 
the  most  important  controlhng  factor  of  the  whole 
situation  is  the  Nursery  School  superintendent  and  her 
helpers.  Other  conditions  may  be  perfect,  but  without 
the  right  persons  to  inspire  and  carry  out  the  work  all 
is  in  vain.  On  the  other  hand,  the  early  stages  of  the 
movement  have  given  abundant  evidence  that  the  right 
people  can  do  wonders,  even  though  hampered  in  a 
thousand  ways  by  material  conditions,  and  by  lack  of 
special  training.  It  is  true  that  success  has  often  been 
won  at  too  great  a  cost  of  health  and  energy,  and  the  public 
owe  an  incalculable  debt  to  the  pioneers  in  Free  Kinder- 
gartens and  Day  Nurseries,  who  have  sacrificed  so  much 
for  the  cause  of  little  children.  Their  reward  is  the  recog- 
nition of  the  Nursery  School  as  the  right  foundation  for 
the  national  system  of  education.  In  every  sphere  of  life 
it  is  useless  to  ignore  the  part  that  personality  plays — 
nothing  can  take  its  place,  and  nowhere  is  this  more 
'Strictly  true  than  in  the  Nursery  School. 

The  first  demand  on  the  staff — one  and  all — is  for 
complete  sincerity  of  character.  This  is  far  more  important 
than  any  special  gifts  of  mind  or  person.  The  child  must 
have  reason  for  his  trust.  Love  of  little  children  is  a  twin 
I  essential;  and  for  all  who  possess  these  two  qualifications 
i there  is,  after  suitable  training,  some  place  in  a  Nursery 
ISchool.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  scarcely  a  desirable 
{quality  of  mind  and  character  or  person  that  a  superin- 
jtendent  would  not  wish  to  possess,  and  even  feel  to  be 
/lecessary  for  the  utmost  fulfilment  of  h«jr  ideals.     No 

133 


134        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

native  qualifications  are  too  good  and  no  preparation  too 
careful  for  work  in  a  Nursery  School. 
y  Special  training  is  certainly  necessary,  and  should,  as 
regards  length  of  time  and  quality  of  work  required,  be 
on  a  level  with  that  of  teachers  recognized  as  trained  and 
certificated  by  the  Board  of  Education.  The  character 
of  training  needed  is  in  many  respects  different  from  that 
of  a  teacher,  but  it  is  important  that  from  the  beginning 
its  status  should  be  the  same. 

It  is  very  necessary  to  recognize  the  fact  that  the  staff 
is  not  composed  of  teachers  in  the  commonly  accepted 
sense,  although  it  is  probable  that  the  most  efficient 
pioneers  of  the  immediate  future  will  come  from  the  ranks 
of  experienced  teachers.  There  is  much  that  the  teacher 
and  the  Nursery  School  superintendent  have  in  common, 
but  it  is  important  to  realize  the  difference  between  the 
one  and  the  other. 

The  demands  on  the  Nursery  School  staff  are  various, 
and  correspond  to  three  aspects  of  the  work  : 

(a)  The  special  care  of  the  children's  health,  the  training 
in  hygienic  habits,  the  maintenance  of  hygienic  conditions. 

(6)  The  children's  educational  development  in  the  wider 
sense. 

(c)  The  work  outside  the  nursery  itself — the  keeping  in 
touch  with  the  home-life,  the  necessary  visits  to  clinics, 
hospitals,  and  other  remedial  institutions. 

All  this  obviously  cannot  be  done  by  one  person,  even  for 
forty  children.  It  is,  indeed,  important  to  realize  at  the 
outset  that  there  must  be  at  least  two  experienced  and 
qualified  helpers  to  every  Nursery  School,  apart  from 
young  probationers.  Whether  the  nursery  be  large  or 
small,  this  requirement  is  equally  pressing,  because  with 
young  children  from  two  years  old  and  upwards  the 
superintendent  may  be  called  off  at  any  moment  to  attend 
to  an  emergency  connected  with  one  child.  The  rest 
must  never  be  left  alone — therefore  it  becomes  necessary 
always  to  provide  two  qualified  members  of  staff. 

In  addition,  probationers  will  be  wanted.  These  may 
be  young  girls  who  are  looking  forward  to  a  career  as  a 


NURSERY    STAFF— SUPERINTENDENTS  135 

trained  children's  nurse,  and  who  hope  to  work  eventually 
either  in  children's  hospitals  or  in  creches  or  private  houses. 
They  should  be  paid  a  moderate  wage,  and  receive  a 
practical  training  from  the  superintendent.  Classes  should 
be  arranged  for  this  type  of  helper,  and  a  certificate  or 
official  letter  given  her  at  the  end  of  her  course  if  her  work 
has  been  satisfactory  in  all  respects.  Such  training  for 
one  year  or  more,  according  to  her  age,  should  give  her  the 
right  to  be  recognized  as  a  qualified  children's  nurse. 

In  a  nursery  of  forty  children  a  qualified  superintendent, 
a  qualified  assistant,  and  two  such  probationers  would 
constitute  an  adequate  staff.  It  must  be  remembered, 
however,  that  the  number  of  probationers  required  depends 
largely  on  the  number  of  children  admitted  under  three 
years  of  age.  To  look  after  seven  babies  of  two  is  as  much 
as  one  grown-up  person  can  manage  !  On  the  other  hand 
it  is  possible  for  one  helper  to  care  for  more  than  double 
the  number  between  three  and  six  years  of  age. 

It  should  be  noted  also  that  as  the  work  of  the  Nursery 
School  staff  cannot  be  restricted  absolutely  to  school 
hours,  special  consideration  must  be  given  to  the  need 
for  a  break  and  a  rest  during  the  day. 

Training  of  the  Nursery  School  Staff 

The  character  of  the  work  to  be  done  in  the  Nursery 
School   determines   the    type   of   training    needed   by   a 
superintendent.      If  she   is    to   care  adequately  for  the 
child's  health,  to  be  capable  of  adjusting  his  conditions 
to  his  physical  needs,  and  to  train  him  in  all  desirable 
physical  habits,  it  will  be  necessary  for  her  to  make  a  careful 
study  of  the  conditions  of  health  in  early  childhood,  and 
of  some  of  the  laws  of  bodily  development.     She  will 
also  need  considerable  experience  of  the  best  ways  of 
caring  for  children,  and  plenty  of  opportunity  of  working 
in  good  nurseries  where  good  methods  are  to  be  learned. 
Thus  a    superintendent's    training  must    be  thoroughly 
practical.     It  will  include  both  practice  in  Day  Nurseries 
and  Nursery  Schools,  and  assistance  in  out-patients'  wards, 
clinics,  and  schools  for  mothers.     A  period  of  training  in 


136        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

a  babies'  or  children's  hospital  of  at  least  three  months' 
duration  is  greatly  to  be  desired. 

Social  Studies 

Social  studies  that  will  help  to  give  the  superintendent 
the  right  outlook  can  best  be  made  in  connexion  with  the 
practical  part  of  her  work.  To  visit  the  homes  of  the  chil- 
dren of  the  particular  nursery  in  which  she  happens  to  be 
working,  to  study  the  influences  at  work  in  the  same  neigh- 
bourhood, to  assist  at  the  parents'  gatherings  or  mothers' 
classes,  give  invaluable  training  which  can  be  usefully  sup- 
plemented by  a  good  course  of  lectures  on  modern  social 
conditions.  In  this  way  the  student  may  hope  to  become 
efficient  as  a  guardian  of  the  child's  health,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  acquire  the  outlook  she  needs  with  regard  to  her 
work  as  a  whole.  She  will  have  been  able  to  come  to  close 
quarters  with  many  of  the  most  important  controlling 
conditions  with  which  in  some  form  or  other  she  will  have 
to  contend  in  her  future  work. 

The  training  in  hygiene,  and  the  study  of  social 
conditions  in  connexion  with  much  practical  work,  are 
perhaps  the  newest  features  of  a  course  of  training 
leading  to  an  educational  calling. 

Psychological  Studies 

Opportunity  will  also  be  needed  for  simple  studies  in 
the  psychology  of  early  childhood.  For  this,  again,  almost 
daily  contact  with  children  will  be  necessary.  Lectures 
will  be  desirable,  but  will  probably  prove  fruitful  in  propor- 
tion to  the  first-hand  experience  of  the  student.  The 
future  superintendent  will  also  wish  to  be  put  in  touch  with 
the  best  of  the  educational  thought  of  to-day,  and  to  trace 
some  of  the  influences  of  the  past. 

Practical  Instruction 

Several  practical  courses  will  be  wanted,  of  shorter  or 
greater  length ;  for  example,  simple  forms  of  handwork — 
interesting  to  children — also  the  making  of  children's 
garments,  plain  cookery  suitable  for  httle  children,  and  the 
keeping  of  accounts. 


NURSERY  STAFF— SUPERINTENDENTS  137 

Very  important  is  personal  training  in  music  and  rhj'thm 
and  speech,  as  well  as  an  abundant  knowledge  of  children's 
games  and  stories. 

Gardening  and  Nature  Study 

Every  superintendent  should  know  also  how  to  make  a 
garden  and  tend  plants  and  flowers.  In  s3-mpathy  with 
a  child's  love  of  nature,  she  will  wish  to  study  animals 
and  plants  herself,  and  thus  by  her  sound  if  elementary 
knowledge  of  some  of  the  laws  of  life-development,  be 
ready  to  help  her  children  to  find  out  answers  to  some  of 
the  many  questions  they  may  ask  her. 

Literature 

It  will  readily  be  admitted  that  any  course  of  training 
that  excludes  generous  studies  in  literature  will  prove  to 
be  inadequate.  Such  studies  are  needed  first  of  all  for 
the  enrichment  of  the  student's  own  personality,  for  merely 
professional  training  is  not  enough ;  also,  literature  may 
in  the  future  be  her  readiest  means  of  securing  complete 
refreshment  and  renewal  of  mind  and  spirit.  Again,  it  will 
be  remembered  that  every  superintendent  must  learn  to  be 
a  story-teller  ;  to  meet  this  demand  is  impossible  unless 
the  mind  is  first  steeped  in  good  literature.  Studies  in 
literature  then,  though  mentioned  last,  are  second  to  none 
in  importance  in  the  training  of  the  Nursery  School 
superintendent. 

Such  a  training  as  that  suggested  above  requires  a 
minimum  of  two  years,  the  normal  time  spent  by  teachers 
at  Government  Training  Colleges.  One-year  courses  for 
experienced  persons  would  naturally  emphasize  the  special 
features  of  the  work  in  Nursery  Schools,  and  omit  the  rest. 

The  training  of  the  superintendent  of  a  Nursery  School 
is  thus  "  compounded  of  that  of  the  nurse,  the  teacher, 
and  the  social  worker."  At  the  end  of  it,  if  not  much  over 
twenty  years  of  age,  she  should  fill  the  post  of  a  fully- 
quahfied  assistant  for  some  years  before  bcccming  a 
superintendent,  for  the  post  of  head  is  one  of  serious 
responsibility,  and  this  should  be  recognized  in  every  way. 


138        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

It  cannot  be  emphasized  too  strongly  that  special 
training  should  be  given  to  all  to  whom  the  management 
of  a  Nursery  School  is  to  be  entrusted.  It  is  desirable  to 
attract  women  to  this  work  from  as  wide  a  field  as  possible, 
and  to  remove  all  possible  barriers  from  suitable  candidates. 
Courses  of  training  should  be  made  easily  available,  but 
should  be  invariably  required. 

No  type  of  helper  corresponding  to  the  supplementary 
teacher  should  be  allowed  to  grow  up  in  connexion  with 
Nursery  Schools.  Such  an  expedient  might  be  convenient 
for  the  moment,  but  in  the  long  run  would  prove  detri- 
mental both  to  the  efficiency  of  the  Nursery  School  and  the 
professional  standing  of  its  staff. 

Given  right  conditions,  it  may  reasonably  be  supposed 
that  the  call  for  workers  will  win  a  wide  response.  The 
movement  should  have  an  almost  universal  appeal  to 
women,  and  should  give  scope  to  varied  gifts.  To  some, 
the  wrestle  with  physical  defect  before  it  has  had  time  to 
establish  itself  will  appeal  most ;  to  others,  the  fascination 
of  dealing  with  the  early  stages  of  mind-development. 
Others  again  will  find  satisfaction  in  the  unrivalled  oppor- 
tunity of  helping  their  fellow-women  in  what  is  often  the 
hard  struggle  of  family-life,  of  bringing  to  them  new 
knowledge,  skill,  and,  above  all,  fellow^ship,  as  they  fight 
through  the  most  difficult  years. 

Lastly,  it  may  be  hoped  that  the  movement  will  offer 
opportunities  to  women  who  have  gifts  for  organization. 
There  is  no  doubt  that,  as  time  goes  on,  the  various  agencies 
at  work  for  the  welfare  of  young  children  will  have  to  be 
linked  together  more  closely  than  they  are  at  present. 
There  will  be  need  of  trained  intelhgence  and  special  gifts 
and  experience  in  those  who  are  invited  to  carry  out  schemes 
of  further  co-operation  in  the  future. 

It  is  more  than  likely  that  the  specially  trained  and 
experienced  Nursery  School  superintendents,  of  good 
general  education  and  with  a  special  bent  for  organization, 
will  prove  to  be  good  candidates  for  responsible  posts 
in  institutions  where  various  agencies  for  child-welfare 
are  co-ordinated. 


PART  VI 

NOTES  ON  BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT 
By  the  Editor. 

chapter  i 
BUILDINGS 

IT  will  probably  be  found  desirable  to  preserve  an 
open  mind  for  the  next  few  years  as  to  the  ideal 
type  of  building  and  equipment  of  the  Nursery 
School.  It  will  be  well  also  to  look  forward  to  the  need 
for  a  considerable  variety  of  type.  Differences  in  type 
will  be  determined  by  the  relationship  of  the  nursery 
itself — that  is,  whether  the  particular  nursery  in  question 
is  to  be  a  separate  institution  or  to  be  closely  affihated  to 
some  other  child-welfare  agency,  such  as  a  school  for 
mothers,  a  day-nursery,  or  an  elementary  school. 

Experiments  that  are  already  working  show  three  well- 
marked  methods  of  housing  a  Nursery  School  : 

(i)  The  Open-air  Shed.  The  Rachel  McMillan  Nursery 
School  in  Deptford  is  the  outstanding  instance  of  this  type 
of  Nursery  School.  Its  extraordinary  success  renders  it 
of  all  types  the  best  worth  consideration. 

(2)  A  Number  of  Cottages  thrown  into  one — with  the 
divisions  between  their  yards  removed.  A  good  instance 
of  this  method  is  seen  in  the  Ardwick  Nursery  School, 
Manchester. 

Here,  in  a  dreary  but  thickly  populated  factory  district, 
communication  is  made  between  four  cottages  exactly 
similar  to  the  rest  in  the  same  street.     By  means  of  the 

139 


140        NtJRSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

removal  of  dividing  partitions,  the  playrooms  are  made  to 
extend  from  front  to  back  of  the  building,  permitting  a 
through  draught  of  air.  The  smaller  rooms  serve  as  re- 
ceiving-room and  cloak-room.  Suitable  lavatories  are 
provided  in  the  yard,  easily  accessible  from  the  house. 
The  long,  narrow  yard  is  provided  with  plants,  and  the 
windows  with  window-boxes. 

The  drawback  here  is  the  want  of  adequate  space,  but 
the  humble  premises,  exactly  similar  to  the  homes  of  the 
children,  help  to  bring  about  the  friendly  relation  between 
the  nursery  and  the  neighbourhood  that  is  so  much  desired. 

(3)  The  House  and  Garden.  In  many  of  our  big  towns 
there  are  districts  which  are  densely  populated  by  families 
that  live  in  conditions  which  make  the  right  bringing  up 
of  children  an  impossibility.  In  such  areas  there  is  an 
urgent  need  for  Nursery  Schools.  Fortunately  it  is  not 
infrequently  the  case  that  here  and  there  roomy  houses 
with  gardens,  deserted  by  well-to-do  residents,  remain  un- 
touched, though  generally  in  bad  condition.  Such  houses 
have  served  for  Day  Nurseries  and  Nursery  Schools. 

Although  not  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  slum,  the 
Rusholme  Day  Nursery  and  Nursery  School,  Manchester, 
shows  what  can  be  done  with  this  type  of  premises.  The 
house  gives  provision  for  forty  children,  ranging  from  a 
few  months  to  five  years  of  age.  The  babies'  rooms, 
with  bath-room,  lavatory,  and  receiving-room,  arc  on  the 
first  floor.  On  the  ground  floor  are  two  play-rooms  for 
the  Nursery  School,  with  kitchen  and  staff-room.  An 
additional  cloak-room  and  lavatories  have  been  added. 
There  is  a  pleasant  garden  containing  a  large  grass  plot, 
trees,  and  flowers  ;  a  good-sized  sand-pit  (7  feet  by  9 
feet)  is  placed  in  one  corner,  and  a  shed  for  peram- 
bulators adjoins  the  house. 

While  it  is  recognized  that  adaptations  to  circumstances 
must  always  be  made,  and  that  in  many  cases  the  ideal 
equipment  will  not  be  forthcoming,  it  is  desirable  at  this 
juncture  to  consider  in  what  kind  of  surroundings  the 
Nursery  School  could  fulfil  its  aims  most  successfully. 

For  convenience  we  will  consider,  first,  the  single  Nursery 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  141 

School  housed  in  a  separate  building,  designed  to  accom- 
modate forty  children,  for  whom  dinner  will  be  provided 
in  the  middle  of  the  day. 

Site 

The  first  essential  is  space.  Besides  room  for  the  building 
itself,  the  minimum  space  should  be  sufiicient  to  allow 
the  children  to  run  about  freely.  It  need  hardly  be  added 
that  when  ample  space  of  garden  or  field  is  possible,  it 
can  scarcely  be  too  generously  allowed.  The  site  should 
also  be  such  that  the  building  can  face  south  or  south- 
east, so  as  to  secure  all  the  morning  sunshine  possible. 
Raised  ground  is  an  advantage,  but  steep  hills  should 
be  avoided. 

Type  of  Building 

Without  doubt  the  new  Nursery  School  buildings  should 
be  of  the  open-air  type.  Experiments  already  tried, 
such  as  Miss  Margaret  McMillan's  at  the  Baby  Camp  in 
Deptford,  London,  have  shown  incontestably  that  excellent 
results,  as  gauged  by  increases  in  height  and  weight  and 
other  ways,  are  obtained  when  babies  and  little  children 
live  in  the  open  air  under  suitable  conditions,  both  winter 
and  summer.  The  success  of  our  open-air  schools  for 
delicate  children  also  gives  reason  for  confidence  that 
conditions  which  are  so  beneficial  to  delicate  children  are 
likely  to  yield  a  far  more  abundant  return  in  the  case  of 
healthy  children. 

From  another  point  of  view  also  the  open-air  type  of 
building  is  desirable  for  a  Nursery  School.  We  have 
maintained  in  a  previous  chapter  that  close  contact  with 
Nature  is  a  fundamental  need  in  child  development.  There- 
fore the  Nursery  School  should  avoid  the  atmosphere  of 
the  shut-away  nursery— still  more  the  idea  of  the  class- 
room. When  the  children  live  in  rooms  which  are  open 
throughout  their  whole  length  to  the  garden,  they  can 
experience  a  hving  with  nature  otherwise  impossible. 
When  not  actually  in  the  garden,  they  can  be  dry  and  warm 


142        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

in  their  open  rooms  without  being  away  from  the  influence 
of  Nature. 

Thus  it  is  urgently  to  be  desired  that  when  new  Nursery 
Schools  are  built  the  open-air  type  shall  be  adopted,  and 
that  so,  without  delay,  the  trend  of  opinion  may  be  in  the 
right  direction. 

Two  successful  plans  have  already  been  tried  : 

(i)  The  open-air  shed  facing  south,  providing  rooms 
having  three  walls  only,  with  windows  or  open  space  about 
eighteen  inches  deep  along  the  top  of  the  north  side  ;  all 
rooms  in  this  case  being  entirely  open  to  the  south.  In 
bad  weather  screen  doors  can  be  pulled  across  the  south 
side  for  protection. 

(2)  The  rooms  in  the  North  Wingfield  Infants'  School, 
in  Derbyshire,  of  which  Mr.  George  Widdows,  of  the 
Derbyshire  County  Education  Authority,  is  the  architect. 

Here  the  rooms  are  entirely  open  from  the  ground  upward 
to  the  height  of  an  ordinary  door,  both  along  the  north 
and  south  sides,  but  can  be  closed  entirely  or  partially  on 
one  side  or  the  other  at  will. 

This  is  effected  by  means  of  a  series  of  doors  running 
the  length  of  the  room  on  both  sides.  These  doors  open 
outwards  back  to  back,  and  can  be  clamped  together  in 
pairs.  The  upper  part  of  each  door  is  fitted  with  windows, 
which  can  be  let  down  when  it  is  desired  to  shut  the  doors 
but  to  retain  complete  cross-ventilation. 

Thus  a  great  variety  of  adjustment  to  conditions  of 
wind  and  weather  is  possible. 

There  is  a  broad  veranda  running  along  both  the  north 
and  south  sides  of  the  room.  Though  covered,  it  does  not 
darken  the  room,  for  a  north  light  is  secured  by  means 
of  a  continuous  skyhght,  five  feet  deep,  and  above  the 
veranda  on  the  south  side  is  a  big  dormer  window. 

Heating 

The  question  of  adequate  heating  is  a  serious  one.  Little 
children  must  be  kept  warm.  Active  as  they  are,  they 
spend  long  periods  playing  quietly  on  the  floor  or  at  tables. 


H-.  H-HFTK 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  143 

and  therefore  the  problem  of  keeping  the  rooms  at  the 
right  temperature  is  one  which  needs  careful  considera- 
tion, especially  when  an  open-air  type  of  building  is 
contemplated. 

The  North  Wingfield  Infants'  School  solves  this  problem 
by  providing  steam  pipes  placed  under  a  floor  made  of 
concrete  slabs  two  and  a  half  inches  thick.  A  temperature 
of  sixty-five  to  seventy  degrees  at  the  surface  of  the  floor 
ensures  an  even  temperature  above  of  about  fifty-six  to 
sixty  degrees.  If  the  feet  are  warm,  a  good  circulation 
of  the  blood  is  secured,  and  the  cold  fresh  air  brings  with 
it  no  risk  of  chill. 

Plan  of  Building 

In  planning  a  building  for  a  Nursery  School,  provision 
is  needed  in  some  form  or  other  for  : 

{a)  A  large  play-room,  not  less  than  forty  feet  by 
twenty  feet.  There  should  be  the  possibility 
of  dividing  one  such  spacious  room  into  two 
good-sized  rooms,  so  that  the  children  of  two 
and  three  years  of  age  may  at  times  play 
separately  from  those  of  four  and  five.  This 
room  should  face  the  south. 

{h)     A  sleeping- room,  which  need  not  face  south, 

(c)  A  small  room,  ten  or  twelve  feet  square,  which 

will  serve  as  an  isolation-room  when  needed, 
and  at  other  times  as  a  quiet  room  for  any  two 
or  three  children  who  may  need  to  be  withdrawn 
from  too  stimulating  companionship  for  a  time. 

(d)  A  small  kitchen,  scullery,  and  larder. 
{e)     A  room  for  dining  and  rest  for  the  staff. 

(/)  '  A  room  for  the  superintendent  where  parents  can 

be  received. 
{g)     A  receiving-room,  preferably  with  sunny  aspect, 

containing  washing  apparatus. 
(h)     Cloak-rooms,  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  square,  for 

the   children,  and   additional  accommodation 

for  the  staff. 
{i)    Lavatories  for  staff  and  children. 


144.        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

The  following  considerations  are  important : 

(a)     The    lavatories    should    be    conveniently    near 

receiving-room,  play-room,  and  sleeping-room. 
{b)     The  superintendent's  room  should   be  near  the 
middle  rather  than  at  one  end  of  the  building. 

(c)  The  kitchen  should  be  near  the  rooms  where 

meals  are  taken — that  is,  one  of  the  play-rooms 
and  the  staff-room. 

(d)  The  isolation-room  should  be  near  the  superin- 

tendent's room. 


The  General  Character  of  the  Building 

In  designing  a  building  for  a  Nursery  School  one  would 
desire  that  the  whole  should  give  an  impression  of  simple 
beauty  and  homeliness.  One  would  wish  to  avoid  the 
appearance  of  a  bare,  straggling  barrack,  but  at  the  same 
time  any  departure  from  extreme  simplicity  would  give 
a  building  out  of  harmony  with  its  purpose  of  serving  the 
needs  and  pleasure  of  little  children.  Also  it  should  be 
remembered  that  the  Nursery  School  should  attract  mothers 
and  fathers  as  well  as  children.  It  is  to  be  an  integral 
part  of  the  life  of  the  neighbourhood  in  which  it  is  placed  ; 
therefore  it  must  be  home-like,  not  suggesting  the  ' '  insti- 
tution," so  that  the  very  building  may  help  to  bring  about 
friendly  intercourse  between  the  helpers  in  the  nursery 
and  the  parents  of  the  children. 

The  Garden 

If,  as  has  been  said,  the  children  are  to  feel  that  they  are 
living  with  nature,  the  consideration  of  the  garden  is 
a  matter  of  supreme  importance. 

It  is  not  necessary  that  it  should  be  very  large,  but  it 
should  afford  room  for  physical  activit}^  for  flower-beds, 
for  at  least  one  tree  not  too  near  the  house,  and  for  grass 
plots.  Surely  this  is  not  too  much  to  ask  of  any  advanced 
civihzed  community. 

It  is,  however,  unfortunately  true  that  in  our  big  towns 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  145 

it  is  at  present  most  difficult,  if  not  practically  impossible, 
to  provide  a  garden  in  the  very  situations  where  Nursery 
Schools  arc  most  needed.  A  roof-garden  must  then  be 
the  last  resort. 

In  districts  where  a  large  park  is  less  than  half  a  mile 
away,  there  is  an  excellent  case  for  placing  the  Nursery 
School  within  it.  While  it  is  of  first  importance  that  open 
spaces  devoted  to  public  use  should  not  be  curtailed,  yet, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  children  would  occupy  the  park 
only  during  the  hours  of  the  day  when  it  is  usually  almost 
deserted,  and  the  returns  in  healthy  physique  would  be 
sufficiently  great  to  compensate  for  the  sacrifice  of  free 
access  to  a  small  but  unoccupied  portion. 

In  districts,  however,  where  the  difficulties  are  not 
insuperable,  the  garden  should  be  one  of  the  first  considera- 
tions. 

At  this  point  it  is  advisable  to  urge  the  importance  of 
giving  a  prominent  place  to  the  needs  of  little  children  in 
all  the  new  town-planning  and  building  schemes.  It  will 
be  deplorable  if  this  all-important  aspect  of  reconstruction 
is  forgotten  or  pushed  aside.  "  Children's  Houses  "  or 
Nursery  Schools  which  can  be  used  by  groups  of  families 
will  be  needed  close  to  the  new  homes.  They  should  be 
so  near  that  mothers  will  be  able  to  watch  their  children 
at  play  without  difficulty,  and  satisfy  themselves  at  times 
during  the  day  that  all  is  well.  They  should  be  situated 
as  far  as  possible  where  there  are  no  dangerous  streets  to 
cross,  and  apart  from  noisy  traffic.  These  matters  need 
consideration  while  there  is  yet  time.  It  is  difficult  to 
over-estimate  the  national  importance  of  a  wise  provision 
for  the  needs  of  little  children. 


u 


CHAPTER  II 

EQUIPMENT^ 

NDER  this  heading  must  be  considered  : 

I.    The     necessary     fixed     installations     of 
a  Nursery  School. 

II.  Decoration. 

III.  Furniture  and  toys  and  other  movable  equip- 

ment. 

I.    Fixed  Installations. 

Hot  Water. 

It  is  necessary  that  both  hot  and  cold  water  should 
be  available.  Preferably  a  system  of  hot-water  pipes 
should  be  installed  with  taps  in  kitchen  and  receiving-room, 
but  failing  this  a  geyser  should  be  provided.  A  gas  stove 
for  heating  water  in  a  large  vessel,  fitted  with  a  tap,  is 
also  very  useful. 

Receiving-room. — For  forty  children  it  is  desirable 
to  fix  six  washing  basins  in  the  receiving-room.  Thej^ 
should  not  be  more  than  sixteen  to  twenty  inches  from  the 
ground.  The  children  will  be  trained  to  turn  the  water  on 
and  off,  therefore  the  taps  should  be  easy  to  manage.  It 
is,  however,  perfectly  satisfactory  from  the  children's 
point  of  view  if,  instead,  a  stand  for  jugs  and  bowls  be 
provided.  A  basin  for  grown-up  people^ould  be  added. 
Two  baths  suitable  for  young  children  should  also  be 
provided. 

Rows  of  pegs,  not  more  than  thirty  and  a  half  to  thirty- 
six  inches  from  the  floor,  and  at  least  six  inches  apart, 
should  be  provided  for  the  children's  towels. 

Sanitary  Conveniences. — It  is  essential  that  lavatories 
should  be  suitably  designed.    For  thirty  children  between 

146 


r 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  117 

three  and  six  years  of  age  not  less  than  four  should  be 
installed.  These  should  be  separated  from  one  another  by 
partitions  from  three  and  a  half  to  four  feet  high.  Such  an 
arrangement  ensures  privacy,  and  also  makes  efficient 
supervision  possible.  It  is  important  to  secure  a  good  and 
easy  flush  of  water.  The  height  of  the  seats  should 
range  from  six  to  eight  inches,  with  inside  diameters 
seven  by  nine   inches. 

Even  if  compromises  should  have  to  be  made  in  certain 
directions  as  regards  equipment,  it  is  most  undesirable  to 
start  a  Nursery  School  without  some  such  careful  provision 
of  suitable  lavatory   accommodation. 

Cloak-rooms. — The  cloak-room  pegs  should  be  at  the 
same  height  as  those  provided  for  towels  in  the  rccci^'ing- 
room.  They  should  be  fixed  on  stands  away  from  the 
walls,  and  the  distance  between  the  pegs  should  be  at 
least  twelve  inches  in  order  that  the  clothes  of  each  child 
may  not  touch  those  on  the  nearest  peg.  The  special 
necessity  of  avoiding  every  possible  risk  of  infection  in  a 
Nursery  School  renders  this  point  important. 

A  separate  cloak-room  with  lavatory  accommodation 
and  washing  basin  will  be  needed  for  the  staff. 

Artificial  light  will  be  needed,  especially  in  any  room 
available  for  parents'  gatherings. 

Fixed  cupboards  are  desirable  : 

(i)     In  kitchen,  for  groceries,  crockery,  and  cleaning 
materials  respectively. 

(2)  In  receiving-room,  for  towels  and  cloths. 

(3)  In    play-rooms,   for   toys  and    play  materials. 
These  should  be  low  and  easily  accessible  to  the 

children. 

(4)  In  sleeping-room  a  cupboard  fitted  on  an  enlarged 

pigeon-hole  system  may  be  desirable  for  the 
purpose  of  keeping  the  children's  blankets  and 
pillows. 

Blinds. 

There  should  be  blinds  fixed  in  the  sleeping-room  for 
darkening  the  room  during  certain  hours  of  the  day. 


148        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

II.  Decoration 

The  most  appropriate  wall  decoration  is  plain  colour- 
wash. In  some  cases  a  sunny  yellow  gives  the  right  feeling 
for  a  children's  room,  in  others  a  soft  pink.  A  dado  of 
blue  in  washable  paint,  with  buff  or  cream  colour  above, 
is  cheerful  and  also  economical.  One  of  the  most  efficiently 
decorated  nurseries  known  to  the  writer  has  soft  grey 
walls.  There  are  screens  of  a  "  firmament  blue  "  in  this 
nursery,  and  the  helpers  dress  in  the  same  colour.  No 
Nursery  School  superintendent  is  indifferent  to  the  colour 
of  her  walls,  and  she  would  greatly  desire  to  be  consulted 
about  the  decorations  of  her  nursery. 

The  floors  are  best  covered  with  cork  linoleum,  of  a 
colour  harmonizing  with  that  of  the  walls.  This  is  durable, 
easily  cleaned,  and  suitable  for  little  children.  It  is  impor- 
tant to  make  provision  for  daily  effective  cleaning,  as  the 
standard  of  cleanliness  in  a  Nursery  School  must  be  ap- 
preciably higher  than  that  of  the  average  elementary 
school.  Bare  boards  need  scrubbing  at  least  twice  a  week, 
and  the  labour  involved  is  more  than  it  is  desirable  to  ask. 
Moreover,  the  danger  of  splinters  renders  bare  boards 
unsuitable  for  very  young  children.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  a  baby  of  two  spends  most  of  his  time 
on  the  floor,  therefore  a  clean,  not  too  hard,  covering  is 
necessary. 

III.  Furniture,  Toys,  and  other  Movable  Equipment 

The  whole  equipment  of  the  nursery  should  be  of 
simple  character. 

{a)  The  Receiving-room. — In  addition  to  the  fixed 
equipment  already  suggested,  each  child  will  need  some 
receptacle,  a  bag  or  a  rack,  for  his  own  washing  apparatus, 
including  soap,  flannel,  and  tooth-brush.  These  will  be 
labelled  by  name  or  picture  in  some  way  intelligible  to  the 
youngest  child. 

One  or  two  nursing  chairs  for  the  helpers,  possibly  half 
a  dozen  commode  chairs  for  the  two-year-olds,  besides 
one  or  two  ordinary  chairs  will  be  needed. 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  li<j 

The  cupboard  will  be  stocked  with  bath  towels,  face 
towels,  dusters,  tea  cloths,  and  table  cloths. 

The  fumigating  cupboard  can  be  placed  in  this  room. 

(&)  The  Cloak-room. — Pigeon-holes  for  shoes  and  boots 
will  be  needed  here. 

•  (c)  The  Play-rooms. — There  must  be  table  room  for 
every  child.  The  small  light  tables  designed  for  not  more 
than  two  children  are  the  most  desirable.  Low  trestle 
tables  for  dining  only  are  also  useful. 

Small  chairs  with  straight  backs  and  without  arms  should 
be  provided — and  at  least  three  different  heights  are 
needed — from  eight  to  twelve  inches  from  the  ground. 
No  child  should  sit  with  his  legs  dangling  above  the  floor 
for  any  long  period.  Owing  to  the  children's  rapid  growth, 
however,  it  is  usually  impossible  to  secure  perfect  adjust- 
ment at  all  times,  unless  the  number  of  chairs  available 
is  larger  than  the  number  of  children.  A  few  larger  chairs 
for  the  helpers  and  parents  will  also  be  needed. 

A  good  musical  instrument  should  be  secured — piano 
or  dulcitone. 

The  cupboards  will  contain  well-chosen  toys,  construc- 
tive materials,  and  picture-books.  A  doll's  house  should 
find  a  place  in  every  nursery.  Very  desirable  is  a  dresser, 
where  the  children's  milk  mugs,  chosen  for  their  pleasing 
colour  and  design,  can  hang  in  full  view  and  within  reach, 
while  the  lunch  plates  are  kept  on  the  racks. 

Pictures. — The  superintendent  should  be  allowed  to 
choose  a  few  good  pictures.  They  should  be  charactcri/.i.d 
by  simple  treatment  of  form  and  colour  and  childlike 
feeling.  They  should  also  be  intrinsically  beautiful,  so 
that  their  interest  for  the  children  may  grow.  Little 
children  are  often  greatly  attracted  by  some  of  the  great 
pictures  of  "  Madonna  and  Child,"  and  will  grow  to  love 
the  one  that  looks  down  upon  them  from  some  central 
place  in  the  nursery  play-room.  It  goes  without  saying 
that  colour  doubles  the  attractiveness  and  influence  of 
pictures.  Happy  is  the  nursery  that  possesses  a  good 
water-colour  sketch  or  a  Medici  print  1 

The  children  will  need  many  more  pictures  than  these 


150        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

to  look  at  from  time  to  time,  and  it  is  impossible  that  all 
should  be  of  permanent  value,  but  it  is  worth  while  to 
give  every  nursery  child  the  opportunity  of  living  with  at 
least  one  good  picture. 

A  low  table,  which  may  be  used  for  growing  plants,  will 
be  wanted,  and  some  vases  for  cut  flowers. 

Sleeping-room. — The  main  equipment  of  the  sleeping- 
room  consists  in  a  light  folding  stretcher-bed  for  each  child, 
with  a  blanket  and  pillow  with  washable  cover.  These 
should  have  the  name  of  the  child  to  whom  they  are  allo- 
cated attached.    One  chair  and  a  small  table  are  desirable. 

Rooms  for  the  Superintendent  and  Staff. — These  should 
be  furnished  with  comfortable  chairs,  a  couch,  dining- 
table,  writing-desk,  and  a  few  ordinary  chairs. 

Kitchen. — The  furnishings  of  an  ordinary  kitchen, 
scullery,  and  larder  will  be  necessary,  with  crockery  and 
pans  sufficient  for  the  use  of  children  and  staff  at  dinner, 
and  a  few  grown-up  people  at  tea. 

Isolation-room. — ^This  room  will  need  a  stretcher-bed, 
a  child's  table,  two  or  three  children's  chairs,  and  a 
small  cupboard.  The  necessaries  for  dealing  with  slight 
accidents  will  be  wanted. 

The  above  suggestions  are  intended  to  include  the  main 
equipment  required  for  a  separate  Nursery  School  for  forty 
children.  At  the  present  time  it  is  useless  to  quote  the 
cost  of  the  equipment  of  any  existing  Nursery  School,  or 
to  estimate  the  expense  of  one  established  on  these  lines. 
The  fact  must  probably  be  faced,  however,  that  the  cost 
per  head  for  each  child  in  a  Nursery  School  is  bound  to 
exceed  the  sum  usually  spent  at  present  on  each  child  in 
the  infants'  school. 

In  this  connexion  two  facts  deserve  recognition  : 

(i)  We  have  admittedly  spent  too  little  on  education 
in  the  past.  We  have  extended  elementary  education 
till  it  covers  the  whole  population,  but  we  have  not  cared 
to  make  it  first-rate.  We  have  neglected  the  truth  that 
the  foundations  must  be  securely  laid  if  a  noble  building 
is  to  be  reared  upon  them — ^with  the  unsatisfactory  results 
that  confront  us  to-day. 


BUILDINGS  AND  EQUIPMENT  151 

(2)  We  have  to  give  up  the  old-fashioned  notion  that 
the  younger  the  child  the  less  expensive  the  education  ; 
that  the  mature  student  must  have  individual  attention, 
but  that  little  children  can  be  herded  in  crowds  ;  that 
young  children  call  for  less  careful  training  and  preparation 
in  those  who  aspire  to  care  for  and  educate  them  than  do 
young  men  and  women.  We  must  relinquish  these  notions 
because  they  are  not  true.  In  particular,  if  we  now  admit 
children  as  young  as  two  years  of  age  into  our  Nursery 
Schools,  we  must  expect  to  increase  the  cost  per  head, 
for  the  younger  the  child  the  more  care  and  individual 
attention  he  must  have.  Does  not  the  latest  baby  take 
almost  the  whole  attention  of  his  mother  ? 

Nevertheless,  it  is  imperative  to  consider  how  Nursery 
Schools  can  be  most  economically  established  without 
sacrificing  essential  or  desirable  characteristics.  In  every 
large  town  there  are  many  thousands  of  children  for  whom 
provision  in  Nursery  Schools  should  be  made.  The 
tendency  to  establish  big  institutions  must  be  firmly 
resisted  ;  the  intimate  atmosphere  of  family  life  is  essential 
for  young  children,  and  this  could  not  possibly  be  main- 
tained in  nurseries  containing  large  numbers. 

Given  sufficient  space,  however,  it  may  be  possible  to 
devise  a  building  which  would  serve  efficiently  for  several 
nurseries.  A  weU-qualified  and  experienced  head,  with 
trained  helpers  under  her,  might  organize  the  work  so  that 
each  nursery  should  be  carried  on  separately  ;  but  it  would 
be  possible  to  effect  economies  in  the  administration  of 
the  whole,  especially  with  regard  to  kitchen  and  dining 
accommodation. 

In  this  way  a  single  institution  might  provide  suitably 
for  120  children  of  Nursery  School  age,  in  groups  of  forty 
of  mixed  ages.  Each  nursery  would  have  its  own  rooms, 
with  sunny  aspect,  and  its  own  garden  and  verandas  ; 
above  all,  its  own  helpers.  It  could  be  placed  near  an 
elementary  school.  Such  an  organization  might  help  to 
solve  the  problem  for  the  crowded  districts  of  our  great 
cities. 


APPENDIX 

Education  Act,  1918. 
Grant  Regulations,  No.  6. 

STATUTORY  RULES  AND  ORDERS, 

1919,  No.  257. 

EDUCATION,  ENGLAND  AND  WALES. 

Regulations  for  Nursery  Schools,  1919. 

The  Regulations  for  Nursery  Schools,  1919  (includ- 
ing Regulations  for  Payment  of  Grant  in  respect 
OF  those  Schools),  dated  March  5,  1919,  made  by 
THE  Board  of  Education  under  section  44  of  the 
Education  Act,  1918  (8  &  9  Geo.  5,  c.  39). 

BOARD  OF  EDUCATION. 

Regulations  for  Nursery  Schools. 

PREFATORY  MEMORANDUM. 

1.     Section  19  of  the  Education  Act,  1918,  which  came 

into  operation  on  the  8th  August,  1918,  reads  as  follows  : 

"  (i)  The  powers  of  Local  Education  Authorities  for 

the  purposes  of  Part  III.  of  the  Education  Act,  1902,  shall 

include  power  to  make  arrangements  for — 

"  (a)  Supplying  or  aiding  the  supply  of  Nursery 
Schools  (which  expression  shall  include 
nursery  classes)  for  children  over  two  and 
under  five  years  of  age,  or  such  later  age  as 
may  be  approved  by  the  Board  of  Education, 
whose  attendance  at  such  a  school  is  neces- 
sary or  desirable  for  their  healthy  physical 
and  mental  development  ;  and 
"  (6)  Attending  to  the  health,  nourishment  and 
152 


APPENDIX  153 

physical     welfare     of     children     attending 

Nursery  Schools." 
"  (2)  Notwithstanding  the  provisions  of  any  Act  of 
Parliament  the  Board  of  Education  may,  out  of  moneys 
provided  by  Parliament,  pay  grants  in  aid  of  Nursery 
Schools,  provided  that  such  grants  shall  not  be  paid  in 
respect  of  any  such  school  unless  it  is  open  to  inspection 
by  the  Local  Education  Authority,  and  unless  that  authority 
are  enabled  to  appoint  representatives  on  the  body  of 
managers  to  the  extent  of  at  least  one  third  of  the  total 
number  of  managers,  and  before  recognizing  any  Nursery 
School  the  Board  shall  consult  the  Local  Education 
Authority." 

2.  Aims  of  the  Nursery  School. — A  Nursery  School  or 
Class  is  an  institution  providing  for  the  care  and  training 
of  young  children  aged  from  two  to  live  years,  whose  attend- 
ance at  such  a  day  school  is  necessary  or  desirable  for 
their  healthy  physical  and  mental  development.  It  has 
therefore  a  twofold  function  :  first,  the  close  personal 
care  and  medical  supervision  of  the  individual  child, 
involving  provision  for  its  comfort,  rest  and  suitable 
nourishment  ;  and,  secondly,  definite  training — bodily, 
mental  and  social — involving  the  cultivation  of  good 
habits  in  the  widest  sense,  under  the  guidance  and  over- 
sight of  a  skilled  and  intelligent  teacher,  and  the  orderly 
association  of  children  of  various  ages  in  common  games 
and  occupations. 

The  child  is  first  and  foremost  a  growing  organism  :  the 
Nursery  School  will,  on  the  one  hand,  liberate  the  growing 
child  from  the  influences  of  environment  and  constitution 
which  retard,  confine  and  distort  its  growth,  and,  on  the 
other  hand,  will  stimulate  and  direct  its  growth.  It  is 
much  more  than  a  place  for  "minding"  children.  The 
need  of  Nursery  Schools  is  greatest  in  the  more  congested 
areas  of  the  large  towns.  The  influences  which  an  adequate 
supply  of  efficiently  managed  Nursery  Schools  could 
exercise  upon  both  children  and  parents  in  such  areas  can 
hardly  be  overestimated. 

3.  The  present  memorandum  is  prefatory  to  the  Rcgula- 


154        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

tions  which  follow  it,  and  deals  with  (a)  the  physical  care 
of  the  child,  {b)  its  mental  and  social  training,  and  (c)  the 
necessary  administrative  arrangements,  the  site,  premises 
and  equipment,  the  age  of  admission  and  leaving,  the  size 
of  the  school,  and  the  staffing  and  other  ancillary  matters. 

Physical  Care. 

4.  General  Hygiene. — ^The  provisions  of  the  Act 
emphasize  the  need  for  attending  to  the  health,  nourish- 
ment and  physical  welfare  of  the  children.  The  improve- 
ment of  their  health  is  indeed  one  of  the  main  benefits 
which  attendance  at  a  good  Nursery  School  should  bring 
with  it.  In  a  broad  sense,  physical  welfare  will  always  be 
in  view,  and  there  is  hardly  any  hmit  to  the  beneficial 
influence  of  a  Nursery  School  on  this  side  of  its  activities. 
Physical  care  includes  not  only  opportunities  for  rest, 
exercise  and  physical  development,  but  the  provision  of  a 
healthy  school  environment  and  the  inculcation  of  hygienic 
habits  of  life,  of  which  the  thorough  practice  of  personal 
cleanliness  is  an  obvious  example.  Equally  important 
is  suitable  provision  for  the  children's  food.  Meals, 
including  a  mid-morning  lunch  and  midday  dinner,  should, 
as  a  rule,  be  taken  at  the  school,  and  it  may  be  desirable, 
or  even  necessary  in  some  cases,  to  provide  the  children 
also  with  breakfast  and  tea.  The  arrangements  for  meals 
will  need  careful  supervision.  The  dietary  should  be 
suitable  and  sufficient.  The  children  should  spend  a 
definite  part  of  the  day  in  rest  and  sleep.  Neither  the 
exact  time  for  the  rest  nor  its  length  need  here  be  pre- 
scribed, but  it  is  important  that  the  period  should  be  the 
same  each  day  ;  the  teacher  will  herself  decide,  according 
to  circumstances,  what  occupations  should  precede  or 
follow  the  period  of  rest.  The  rest  should  be  taken  on  low 
stretchers,  easily  set  up  and  stored  away,  or  on  clean  mats, 
and  should  mean  lying  down  and  not  sitting. 

5.  It  will  also  be  necessary  to  provide  training  directed 
to  promoting  the  healthy  development  of  the  body. 
Appropriate  physical  training  is  as  indispensable  for 
younger  as  for  older  children.    In  addition  to  very  simple 


APPENDIX  155 

organized  exercises,  they  should  be  allowed  and  encouraged 
to  move  about  freely,  to  use  their  limbs  as  their  natural 
energy  prompts,  and  to  play  the  customary  simple  group 
games,  with  running,  jumping  and  marching.  They 
should  be  taught  to  breathe  correctly  and  naturally  ;  and 
all  this  should  take  place  in  clean  and  airy  surroundings. 
The  importance  of  facilities  for  out-of-door  life  cannot  be 
over-estimated.  Whether  in  a  garden  (under  more 
fortunate  circumstances)  or  on  a  roof  or  other  playground, 
kept  clean  and  screened  from  too  much  wind,  from  wet, 
and  from  the  sun  in  the  height  of  summer,  the  children  in 
Nursery  Schools  should  spend  a  considerable  time  in  the 
open  air.  Nor  need  the  use  of  the  outdoor  space  be 
confined  to  play  in  the  form  of  free  bodily  exercise.  In 
warm  weather  especially  the  chairs,  tables  and  stretchers 
can  be  carried  outside,  and  most  of  the  day's  occupations 
be  conducted  in  the  open  air. 

6.  Medical  Supervision. — As  is  intimated  in  Article 
4  of  the  Regulations,  a  Nursery  Schcol  should  stand  in  close 
relation  to  the  school  medical  service.  Whether  main- 
tained by  the  LocaUEducation  Authority  or  by  a  voluntary 
body,  the  school  should  be  under  the  supervision  of  the 
school  Medical  Officer.  In  the  case  of  a  voluntary  Nursery 
School  it  may  not  always  "be  convenient  for  the  school 
Medical  Officer  to  undertake  the  whole  of  the  medical 
inspection,  but  even  in  such  a  case  the  medical  practitioner 
employed  for  this  purpose  should  be  in  touch  with  the 
school  Medical  Officer,  who  should  visit  the  school  from 
time  to  time.  The  medical  practitioner  selected  should 
preferably  live  near  the  school,  to  be  readily  available 
in  case  of  emergency. 

7.  Medical  supervision  of  Nursery  Schools  is  desirable 
for  four  reasons  : 

(a)  To  prevent  the  admission  of  physically  unsuitable 
''  children. 

{b)  To  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  the  development  of 
physical  defects  or  ailments,  and  to  ensure 
prompt  treatment  where  necessary. 

(c)  To  avoid,  as  far  as  possible,  the  spread  of  infectious 


156        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

diseases  such  as  measles  and  whooping-cough 
by  providing  opportunity  for  early  diagnosis 
and    the     adoption     of    prompt     preventive 
measures. 
(<^)  To  create  and  develop  healthy  habits  of  life,  and 
the  avoidance  of  injury  to  the  senses. 
Among  the  children  who  desire  admission  there  may  be 
some  who  are  physically  unfit  to  attend  even  a  Nursery 
School.     In  other  cases  it  may  be  desirable  to  retain 
children  at  the  school  on  grounds  of  health  for  a  longer 
period   than   usual  before    sending  them   to   the   public 
elementary  school. 

Various  physical  habits  frequently  observed  among  little 
children,  such  as  mouth-breathing,  squint,  near  distance 
eye  work,  etc.,  should  be  detected  at  the  earliest  oppor- 
tunity, and  arrangements  made  for  their  careful  correction. 
One  reason  for  the  provision  of  Nursery  Schools  is  indeed  to 
reduce  the  large  numbers  of  preventable  defects  now 
observed  in  entrants  to  the  public  elementary  school,  and 
the  associated  educational  handicap  and  resulting 
incapacity.  For  several  years  past  the  degree  and 
character  of  defects  prevalent  among  children  on  their 
first  admission  to  the  elementary  schools  have  revealed 
a  widespread  measure  of  low  physical  condition  in  children 
under  five,  not  a  little  of  which  might  have  been  prevented 
if  it  had  been  properly  dealt  with  between  two  and  five 
years  of  age. 

8.  Medical  Inspection  and  Treatment. — Each  child 
should  be  medically  inspected  according  to  a  prescribed 
schedule  as  soon  as  possible  after  admission,  and  should 
be  seen,  though  not  necessarily  examined,  by  the  doctor 
not  less  than  once  a  term.  Ailing  children  may  require 
more  frequent  inspection.  The  School  Nurse  may  be 
employed  to  assist  in  the  periodical  medical  examination 
of  the  children  and  in  following  up  the  children  found  to 
be  defective.  She  may  also  pay  daily  visits  to  the  school 
to  make  a  "  health  inspection,"  take  temperatures,  if  and 
when  necessary,  and  deal  with  minor  ailments.  In  many 
cases,  however,  it  would  be  more  satisfactory  that  the 


APPENDIX  157 

Superintendent,  or  another  member  of  the  staff  who 
possesses  the  requisite  quaHfications,  should  discharge 
some  or  all  of  these  duties.  She  should  weigh  and  measure 
the  children  at  least  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  each 
term  (preferably  once  a  month),  and  she  should  have  a 
definite  responsibility  for  the  hygiene  of  the  school,  includ- 
ing the  cleanliness  of  the  children  and  the  suitability  of 
their  clothing  and  footgear. 

9.  The  facilities  for  treatment  and  the  arrangements  for 
"following  up"  provided  for  children  in  attendance  at 
public  elementary  schools  should  be  available  for  children 
in  Nursery  Schools.  For  example,  a  child  suffering  from 
squint,  nasal  obstruction  or  discharging  ears,  should  be 
referred  to  the  School  Clinic  for  advice  and,  if  necessary, 
treatment.  Minor  ailments,  e.g.  cuts,  sores,  chilblains, 
should  be  dealt  with  at  the  school  itself.  Particular 
attention  should  be  paid  to  correct  breathing,  and  the 
school  staff  should  be  trained  to  observe  slight  departures 
from  the  normal,  which  are  the  early  indications  of  defects 
of  sight,  hearing,  or  nutrition.  They  should  refer  such 
cases  to  the  Medical  Officer. 

Records  of  physical  conditions,  defects  and  treatment 
should  be  kept  on  schedules  adapted  from  those  in  use 
at  the  public  elementary  school,  and  should  be  transferred 
when  the  child  enters  the  ordinary  school.  If  the  child 
has  previously  attended  an  Infant  Welfare  Centre  a  copy 
of  its  record  should  be  obtained. 

10.  Epidemic  Disease. — ^The  prevention  of  epidemic 
disease  is  particularly  important  where  numbers  of  suscep- 
tible children  under  five  years  of  age  are  in  frequent  and 
close  contact.  The  younger  the  children  the  greater  is 
the  mortality  from  such  diseases  as  measles  and  whooping- 
cough.  Ninety  per  cent,  of  the  deaths  from  measles  and  its 
complications  occur  under  the  age  of  five  years.  If  the 
attack  of  measles,  for  instance,  can  be  postponed  beyond 
early  childhood,  the  illness  is  likely  to  be  less  severe,  and 
there  is  less  liability  to  dangerous  complications  or  after- 
effects, such  as  pneumonia  or  the  development  of  tuber- 
culosis.    Children  known  to  have  suffered  recently  from 


158        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

infectious  disease  should  receive  special  care  and  super- 
vision in  order  to  prevent  the  development  of  after-effects, 
such  as  tuberculosis.  Epidemics  can  be  prevented  to  a 
considerable  extent — 

(i)  by  daily  inspection  by  a  competent  observer  of 
each  child  as  it  enters  the  school ; 

(2)  by  the  strict  adherence  of  the  school  staf?  to  rules 

drawn  up  for  their  guidance  (e.g.  in  regard  to 
exclusion  of ' '  contacts  "  or  of  cases  of  infectious 
disease  at  an  early  or  incipient  stage)  ;• 

(3)  by  exclusions  of  cases  of  "  colds  "  or  suspects  ; 

(4)  by  the  cleanliness  and  hygiene  of  each  child  ; 

(5)  by  the  management  of  the  school  on  open-air  lines. 
The  school  Medical  Officer  should  be  responsible  for  rules 

designed  to  prevent  the  transmission  of  infection,  and  for 
a  general  oversight  of  the  arrangements.  The  necessary 
daily  inspections  should  be  carried  out  either  by  a  qualified 
nurse  or  by  a  senior  member  of  the  staff  if  she  possesses 
suitable  and  sufficient  experience.  It  should  not  be  dele- 
gated to  junior  or  inexperienced  members  of  the  staff. 

Suspicious  cases  should  be  isolated  pending  medical 
advice.  Arrangements  for  the  examination  of  suspected 
cases  of  infectious  disease  should  be  made  by  the  school 
Medical  Officer  in  conjunction  with  the  Medical  Officer  of 
Health  (to  whom  notification  of  infectious  cases  must  be 
sent).  It  may  prove  convenient  to  obtain  a  local  doctor 
to  examine  such  children.  In  any  case  much  more  effective 
and  systematic  steps  should  be  taken  through  the  Nursery 
School  in  regard  to  the  diagnosis  and  following  up  of 
measles,  etc.,  than  have  been  practicable  in  connexion 
with  the  ordinary  infant  school.  It  is,  perhaps,  desirable 
to  add  that  no  scheme  of  Nursery  Schools  will  receive  the 
Board's  approval  until  and  unless  proper  safeguards  have 
been  secured. 

Mental  and  Social  Training. 

11.  It  would,  however,  be  a  mistake  to  assume  that 
healthy  physical  development  is  the  sole  concern  of  a 
Nursery  School,  and  that  the  growth  of  the  mind  can  safely 


APPENDIX  159 

be  neglected.  The  school  should  provide  specific  training 
on  this  side  as  well  as  on  the  physical.  It  has  much  to  do 
in  the  way  of  preparing  the  children  to  begin  the  work  of 
the  elementary  school  with  well-formed  habits,  with  minds 
alert  and  eager  to  learn  and  unspoiled  by  premature 
attempts  to  teach  what  is  unsuitable.  Formal  work  in 
reading,  writing  and  arithmetic  should  have  no  place 
at  all  in  the  Nursery  School.  The  best  preparation  for  the 
three  R's  is  a  training  in  speech  and  language.  The 
children  should  be  taught  to  use  their  voices  naturally, 
without  harshness,  and  to  articulate  clearly  and  correctly. 
They  should  be  encouraged  to  ask  questions,  to  understand 
and  act  upon  what  is  said  to  them,  to  talk  freely  on  their 
own  little  concerns,  to  say  simple  rhymes  and  poems,  and 
to  sing  together.  Music  and  singing  will  help  in  the 
training  of  speech,  and  by  stories  told  to  groups  of  children 
they  will  learn  something  of  the  pronunciation  and  meaning 
of  words.  The  skilful  teacher  will  know  how  to  entice 
even  the  shyest  child  into  talking.  The  picture  books  and 
toys,  with  which  a  Nursery  School  should  be  well  stocked, 
the  garden  and  the  pets  that  may  be  kept,  will  furnish 
material  enough  for  talking.  One  of  the  objects  of  training 
in  speech  is  to  give  the  child,  often  brought  up  in  narrow 
surroundings,  ideas  as  well  as  words — things,  in  short, 
to  talk  about.  In  Wales  it  is  desirable  that  the  language 
of  the  Nursery  School  should  be  the  language  of  the 
children's  home. 

12.  Development  of  Motor  and  Sensory  Experience. — 
A  beginning  may  be  made  in  directing  that  motor  and 
sensory  experience  of  the  child  which  is  vital  to  its  har- 
monious development.  For  though  manual  work  as 
ordinarily  understood  is  more  suitable  for  children  over 
the  age  of  five  years,  its  broad  principles  may  be  introduced 
in  the  Nursery  School.  The  child  learns  through  action  ; 
indeed,  true  muscular  culture  is  brain  culture  ;  and  the 
early  spontaneous  movements  of  the  child  are  of  groat 
importance  as  stimulative  to  the  brain  centres.  Certain 
forms  of  handwork  and  simple  physical  exercises — walking, 
hopping,  skipping,  marching,  running  and  arm  exercise — 


160        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

are  valuable  and  lead  out  the  child's  motor  powers.  It 
should  be  remembered  that  handwork  should  be  so  devised 
as  to  provide  (a)  for  an  appropriate  degree  of  repetition  ; 
(b)  for  sufficient  variety  in  form  and  nature  ;  and  (c)  for 
tasks  which  can  be  completed  in  themselves  at  once  or  in 
one  or  at  most  two  lessons.  Above  all,  the  handwork  and 
other  occupations  of  the  children  in  the  Nursery  School 
should  have  a  purpose.  The  interest  of  young  children  is 
in  occupations  which  have  meaning,  which  do  something, 
and  which  are  followed  by  results.  They  like  to  handle 
things,  and  push  them  about,  to  make,  create,  and  use  ; 
to  build  towers  and  destroy  them  ;  to  collect  and  have  the 
sense  of  ownership  ;  to  come  into  contact  with  and  control 
other  forms  of  existence  than  their  own.  All  these  early 
natural  aspirations  should  be  cultivated,  developed  and 
directed  in  the  Nursery  School. 

13.  Another  principal  aim  will  be  what  is  sometimes 
called  "  sense  training."  The  purpose  of  such  training 
is  not  primarily  to  cultivate  the  ability  to  make  minute 
discriminations  between  different  sounds,  textures,  weights, 
or  even  colours,  an  ability  which  may  be  speedily  lost  if 
it  is  not  constantly  utilized.  It  is  rather,  as  regards  sight, 
to  teach  the  child  to  notice  broad  rather  than  fine 
differences  in  colour,  form  and  size  ;  as  regards  hearing, 
to  listen  with  attention,  to  respond  to  quiet  questions  and 
commands,  to  distinguish  different  sounds,  and  to  develop 
a  taste  for  pleasant  sounds  instead  of  noise  ;  in  touch,  to 
enable  the  child  to  interpret  shape,  size  and  texture  through 
his  fingers,  and  to  use  his  hands  and  fingers  for  manipula- 
tion, such  as  the  careful  carrying  of  utensils  and  the  gentle 
treatment  of  flowers.  The  child  may  also  learn  to  dis- 
tinguish between  the  scents  of  various  articles  and  to 
judge  weight.  In  the  course  of  these  activities  the  children 
will  add  indefinitely  to  their  stock  of  ideas  and  of  words 
with  which  to  express  them.  Closely  associated  with  this 
aspect  of  education  is  the  training  in  balance  and  equili- 
brium and  in  easy  and  graceful  movements  in  walking  ; 
while  a  sense  of  rhythm  may  be  fostered  through  music 
and  dancing.     Bad  habits  both  in  sitting  and  in  moving, 


APPENDIX  161 

ungainly  waddling  and  cramped  postures,  should  be 
patiently  corrected. 

14.  Social  Training. — Much  of  the  training  above 
suggested  will,  no  doubt,  have  to  be  accomplished  with 
individuals  taken  alone  or  in  small  numbers  together. 
But  the  Nursery  School  should  afford  scope  also  for  social 
training  ;  thus  the  children  should  be  trained  to  eat 
properly  and  in  general  "  to  behave  mannerly  at  table." 
They  should  assist  in  lajdng  and  clearing  the  table,  and 
perhaps  in  some  simple  washing  up.  In  the  same  way  they 
can  be  enlisted  in  the  service  of  keeping  the  rooms  tidy, 
and  be  taught  to  put  away  their  playthings  in  the  proper 
place.  If  it  is  rightly  conducted,  the  whole  trend  of  the 
Nursery  School  will  be  to  accustom  the  children  to  attend 
to  themselves,  to  fasten  and  unfasten  clothes  and  boots 
without  haste  or  carelessness,  to  keep  themselves  as  well 
as  their  surroundings  tidy  and  neat,  and  to  take  a  pride  in 
helping  themselves  and  one  another.  Nor  need  it  be  feared 
that  such  a  school  will  present  the  over-clean  appearance 
of  a  too-strictly  regulated  institution. 

Again,  even  young  children  can  learn  to  share  in  games, 
to  play  together  with  common  toys,  sometimes  the  older 
with  the  3^ounger,  and  sometimes  the  older  by  themselves. 
The  importance  of  arousing  a  spirit  of  co-operation  and  of 
mutual  help  need  not  be  here  elaborated.  This  spirit  is 
not  inconsistent  with  the  cultivation  of  a  sense  of  owner- 
ship and  of  pride  of  possession  ;  if  each  child  not  only 
has  access  to  the  common  cupboard  or  shelves  of  playthings, 
but  has  a  few  of  his  own  to  use  or  to  lend,  or  is  given  a 
plant  to  tend,  or  duties  which  he  alone  is  to  perform,  his 
personal  interest  in  the  school  will  be  increased. 

It  will  probably  be  found  advisable  to  let  occasions  of 
collective  work,  in  stories,  games,  or  music,  succeed  periods 
when  children  are  left  to  play  as  their  own  choice  dictates. 
Nothing  pleases  the  average  child  better,  after  he  has  played 
alone  with  toys  and  his  interest  is  exhausted,  than  to  join 
his  fellows  in  listening  to  a  story,  in  singing  or  in  a  game. 
It  is  perhaps  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  a  "  Time-table  " 
is  altogether  out  of  place  in  these  matters,  and   that  the 


162        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

finish  of  a  period  of  collective  work  should  be  determined 
when  the  children  have  obviously  had  enough.  Specified 
times  must  of  necessity  be  set  for  the  beginning  and  end  of 
the  session,  for  meals  and  for  rest  ;  but  nothing  m.ore  than 
these  need  be  settled  beforehand. 

15.  Definite  and  clearly  conceived  as  the  training  in  the 
Nursery  School  should  be,  it  does  not  imply  any  formal 
classification.  Strict  adherence  to  an  age  basis  in  dis- 
tributing children  in  classes  should  be  avoided,  for,  as  has 
already  been  said,  one  of  the  chief  elements  in  the  training 
of  the  children  is  the  cultivation  of  the  spirit  of  common 
play  and  mutual  help,  such  as  is  found  in  every  well- 
conducted  household,  and  not  least  in  families  which  do  not 
contain  nurseries.  It  is  a  good  rather  than  a  bad  thing 
that  the  group  of  children  under  one  teacher  or  assistant 
should  consist  of  children  of  different  ages.  The  child 
of  two  or  three  will  not,  of  course,  be  able  to  join  in  all  that 
children  of  four  or  five  can  do,  but  he  will  watch  with 
interest  and  delight.  Nor  will  he  always  follow  the  story 
to  which  older  ones  will  listen  with  eagerness,  but  he  can 
be  set  free  to  wander  and  play  on  his  own  account.  Older 
children,  too,  even  if  they  have  games  and  pursuits  of  their 
own,  do  not  lose  the  power  of  enjoying  the  simpler  pursuits 
of  their  younger  brothers  and  sisters.  They  will  often 
become  interested  in  the  play  of  the  younger  children 
and  will  be  delighted  to  help  and  amuse  them. 

Administrative  Arrangements. 

16.  Site,  Premises  and  Equipment. — It  is  important 
that  the  site  should  be  easy  of  access  to  the  children's 
homes.  It  may,  indeed,  be  argued  that  the  healthy  physical 
development  of  the  children  in  large  centres  of  population 
would  best  be  secured  by  placing  the  school  in  some  open 
locality  away  from  congested  areas,  but  the  balance  of 
advantage  is  in  favour  of  the  school  being  in  close  proximity 
to  the  children's  homes.  There  are  grave  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  conveying  children  to  a  distant  school ; 
they  could  not  ordinarily  be  accompanied  by  their  elder 
brothers  or  sisters  ;  mothers  would  lose  touch  with  the  ^ 


APPENDIX  163 

school  and  the  staff,  and  would  be  disindined  to  allow 
their  younger  children  to  attend  ;  and  in  case  of  illness 
serious  difficulties  might  arise.  For  these  reasons  the 
Board  would  not,  as  a  rule,  be  prepared  to  recognize  a 
Nursery  School  that  was  not  situated  within  convenient 
walking  distance  of  the  children's  homes.  The  necessity 
of  crossing  dangerous  thoroughfares  must,  of  course,  be 
avoided. 

17.  In   the    choice   of    premises    the    following    main 
considerations  should  be  kept  in  view  : — 

(a)  Some  outdoor  space  in  the  form  of  a  garden  or 
yard  is  essential  unless  the  school  practically 
adjoins  a  park  or  other  open  space  which  can 
be  used  instead.  Whenever  possible,  French 
windows  opening  direct  from  the  rooms  on  to 
a  veranda  or  the  garden  or  yard  should  be 
arranged.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  possible 
to  provide  a  roof  playground  if  outdoor  space 
cannot  be  obtained. 
{b)  The  rooms  should  be  arranged  with  a  \'iew  to  an 
all-day  occupation  ;  in  each  of  the  principal 
rooms  not  less  than  twelve  to  fifteen  square 
feet  of  floor  space  per  child  should  be  provided. 
Light  and  ventilation  should  receive  special 
attention.  A  south  or  south-east  aspect  is 
desirable,  and  open-air  conditions  should  be 
aimed  at  throughout, 
(c)  The  necessary  accommodation  should  be  available 
for  the  daily  inspection  of  the  children,  for  the 
preparation  and  service  of  meals  (though  a 
separate  dining-room  will  not  usually  be 
needed),  and  for  suitable  arrangements  for  rest 
and  sleep, 
(li)  Ample  provision  of  cloak-room,  lavatory  basins, 
bath-room  and  sanitary  conveniences  should 
be  regarded  as  particularly  important.  The 
arrangements  should  be  as  simple  and 
economical  as  possible,  designed  to  permit 
of    convenient    supervision    of    very    young 


164        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

children.  Assuming  a  constant  supply  of  hot 
water,  one  bath  may  suffice  for,  say,  fifty 
children.  For  about  the  same  number  of 
children  four  sanitary  conveniences  should 
suffice,  though  in  a  larger  school  separate 
arrangements  may  be  needed  for  boys  of  five 
or  six  years  of  age. 
The  necessary  arrangements  may  be  summarized  as 
follows  : — 

Lavatory. — ^A  row  of  basins  ;  if  fixed,  they  should 
be  sufficiently  low  for  the  children  to  reach.  Enamelled 
basins  on  a  wooden  bench  answer  satisfactorily  if 
a  low  sink  is  provided  for  emptying.  A  separate 
numbered  towel  for  each  child,  a  toothbrush  and 
mug,  and  a  comb  are  desirable. 

Bath-room. — ^A  small  slipper  bath  raised  above  the 
ground  is  probably  the  most  convenient. 

Sanitary  Conveniences  should  usually  be  provided 
within  the  building,  or  in  any  case  connected  with  it 
by  a  covered  way.  They  must  be  so  arranged  as  to 
be  easily  supervised.  Low  washdown  conveniences 
are  suitable.  They  should  be  partially  screened,  so 
that  the  children  cannot  see  one  another,  though  the 
assistant  can  easily  supervise  them  all. 

Cloak-room. — It    should    be   possible    to    dry    wet 
clothing    and    shoes.      Each    child   should    have   a 
separate    numbered    peg.     Washable    overalls    and 
slippers  may  be  provided,  and  are  almost  essential 
in  wet  weather. 
18.  In  present  circumstances  it  will,  as  a  rule,  be  imprac- 
ticable to  provide  buildings  specially  designed  for  Nursery 
School  purposes.     This,  however,  is  not  altogether  to  be 
regretted  ;  Nursery  Schools  for  some  years  to  come  will 
be  in  the  experimental  stage,  and  until  further  experience 
is  available  any  large  expenditure  on  the  provision  of 
special  premises  could  only  be  justified  by  very  exceptional 
circumstances.     Large  special  buildings  are  neither  neces- 
sary nor  desirable,  for,  in  any  case,  the  school  should  serve 
a  strictly  limited  area.     At  first,  the  Board  have  no  doubt 


APPENDIX  165 

that  it  will  generally  be  possible  to  adapt  some  existing 
premises  for  the  purpose.  Local  circumstances  will,  of 
course,  largely  dictate  the  nature  of  the  premises  to  be 
taken,  but  as  far  as  possible  they  should  be  small,  homely 
and  accessible  ;  in  some  cases  suitable  school  buildings 
may  be  converted  to  the  use  of  a  Nursery  School ;  in 
others  two  or  more  houses  may  be  rented  and  "  knocked 
together."  It  is  most  important  that  the  premises  should 
admit  plenty  of  fresh  air  and  sunshine.  Minor  alterations 
and  adaptations  will  generally  be  needed,  depending  in 
detail  on  the  circumstances  of  each  case. 

Apart  from  the  general  considerations  mentioned  above, 
the  Board  do  not  propose  at  present  to  lay  down  any 
definite  building  regulations  for  Nursery  Schools  ;  they 
will  be  prepared  to  consider  on  their  merits  any  plans 
which  may  be  submitted  ;  an  estimate  of  the  cost  should 
accompany  any  proposals  submitted. 

19.  The  equipment  of  the  children's  rooms  should  be 
simple,  and  should  include  light  tables  and  chairs  (of 
appropriate  size,  weight,  and  form),  washable  rugs, 
stretcher  beds,  educational  apparatus  and  toys. 

20.  The  Size  of  a  Nursery  School. — It  is  obvious  that  a 
Nursery  School  should  be  small  and  homehke  ;  it  should 
not  be  comparable  in  point  of  size  to  most  departments  of 
urban  public  elementary  schools.  About  forty  children 
is  probably  the  ideal  number  for  a  Nursery  School,  but  it 
may  sometimes  be  necessary  to  provide  for  more  than 
forty  if  the  needs  of  a  district  are  to  be  at  all  adequately 
met.  The  Board  will  therefore  not  refuse  to  consider 
proposals  for  a  Nursery  School  providing  for  as  many  as 
eighty  to  one  hundred  children  ;  but  in  no  case  should  the 
number  exceed  one  hundred. 

21.  The  Age  of  Admission  and  Leaving. — Under 
Article  i  [b)  of  the  Regulations  a  child  may  not  be  admitted 
before  the  age  of  two  years  ;  but  it  is  desirable  that 
children  should  begin  to  attend  the  Nursery  School  soon 
after  that  age  ;  good  habits  are  more  easily  formed  and 
many  ailments  to  which  children  are  liable  are  more 
amenable  to  treatment  at  an  early  age.     If  a  child  is  already 


166        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

in  attendance  at  a  day  nursery,  admission  to  a  Nursery 
School  may  be  deferred  until  it  reaches  the  age  of  three 
years.  The  Board  anticipate  that  for  the  present  at  all 
events  children  will  usually  leave  the  Nursery  School  at 
the  age  of  five  or  more  conveniently  at  the  end  of  the  term 
in  which  they  attain  that  age.  So  long  as  five  years  remains 
the  age  at  which  compulsory  attendance  at  school  begins 
in  an  area,  the  transfer  of  children  from  a  Nursery  School 
at  a  later  age  would  retard  their  progress  and  disturb  the 
organization  of  the  public  elementary  school.  Moreover, 
while  the  accommodation  in  Nursery  Schools  is  limited, 
as  it  is  likely  to  be  for  some  time,  the  interests  of  the 
younger  children  should  as  a  rule  take  precedence  of  the 
interests  of  children  between  the  age  of  five  and  six.  In 
exceptional  circumstances,  however,  it  will  no  doubt 
be  desired  to  retain  children  over  the  age  of  five.  Before 
assenting  under  Article  i  (b)  to  such  retention  the  Board 
will  require  to  be  satisfied  (i)  that  the  Local  Education 
Authority  concur  in  the  arrangement ;  (2)  that  the 
premises  and  staff  are  suitable  for  children  over  the  age 
of  five  ;  and  (3)  that  there  are  sufficient  grounds  for  the 
application,  e.g.  that  the  children  are  delicate  or  require 
special  attention. 

22.  Daily  Routine. — The  usual  hours  of  opening  and 
closing  the  school  should  be  respectively  somewhat  earlier 
and  later  than  those  of  the  elementary  school,  so  as  to 
allow  elder  children  to  bring  and  fetch  their  younger 
brothers  and  sisters.  Occupation  should  be  both  individual 
and  collective.  Children  should  be  free  to  develop  their 
own  tastes  and  interests,  but  should  also  learn  to  associate 
with  their  companions  and  to  control  conduct  likely  to 
annoy  others.  They  should  be  carefully  trained  to  be 
self-reliant  and  to  serve  each  other,  sharing  together  in  a 
love  of  persons  and  things  ;  and  an  atmosphere  of  freedom, 
happiness  and  mutual  affection  should  be  cultivated. 
The  school  should  provide  the  child  with  a  joyous  experi- 
ence in  all  relations,  a  simple,  clean,  and  wholesome 
environment  in  which  it  can  grow  in  sociability  and 
naturalness.     An  essential  condition  of  its  success  will  be 


APPENDIX  167 

its  homeliness  and  its  retention  of  the  loyalty  and  confi- 
dence of  the  mothers  of  the  children.  These  conditions 
are  intimately  related  to  the  health  of  the  children. 

23.  Three  of  the  most  important  physical  advantages 
to  secure  in  a  Nursery  School  are  :  (a)  Nutrition — ^good 
food,  fresh  air,  cleanliness,  and  healthy  habits  ;  {h)  exercise 
— ^by  abundance  of  free  play  and  informal  exercise,  and  the 
avoidance  of  finely-adjusted  movements ;  (c)  rest — by 
requiring  periods  of  rest  in  the  horizontal  attitude,  by  short 
and  varied  lessons,  and  by  suitable  chairs  and  apparatus, 
the  use  of  which  prevents  strain  or  restlessness.  The 
purpose  of  the  school  is  not  to  teach  "  the  three  R's,"  but 
by  sleep,  food  and  play  to  provide  the  opportunity  for 
little  children  to  lay  the  foundations  of  health,  good  habit, 
and  a  responsive  and  receptive  personality. 

Children  should  be  bathed  at  least  once  a  week.  Heads 
should  be  combed  regularly.  The  washing  of  heads,  the 
cleansing  of  teeth,  and  the  use  of  the  offices  must  be  closely 
supervised.  The  children  should  be  trained  in  cleanly 
habits,  but  encouraged  to  assist  themselves  as  far  as 
possible. 

24.  The  Staff. — ^The  staff  of  a  Nursery  School  will 
comprise  three  classes  : 

(i)  Superintendents, 
(ii)  Adult  Assistants  and  Nurses. 
(iii)  Probationers. 
Superintendents. — ^The  success  or  failure  of  a  Nursery 
School  will  depend  primarily  on  the  Superintendent.  She 
should  possess  adequate  knowledge  of  child-hygiene,  and 
should  be  capable  of  undertaking  responsibility  for  the 
physical  welfare  of  children  between  the  ages  of  two  and 
five  years.  It  is  equally  important  that  she  should  not  be 
expected  merely  to  perform  the  duty  of  nurse  or  matron. 
Whilst  emphasis  is  laid  on  her  capacity  to  organize  the 
health  side  of  a  Nursery  School,  the  Superintendent  must 
also  be  able  to  direct  the  training  of  the  children  with 
breadth  of  outlook  and  imagination.  In  short,  the  work 
of  a  Superintendent  of  a  Nursery  School  necessarily  demands 
a  high  standard  of  capacity  and  a  varied  experience,  both 


168        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

personal  and  professional.  It  will  not  always  be  easy — 
especially  at  first — for  Local  Education  Authorities  and 
Managers  to  find  the  right  person,  but  the  field  of  choice 
should  be  sensibly  widened  as  time  goes  on.  There  is 
evidence  that  posts  in  Nursery  Schools  will  be  sought  after 
by  teachers  and  other  suitable  persons,  and  special  courses 
of  training  are  being  organized  for  them  at  Training  Colleges 
and  elsewhere.  Where  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  the 
suitability  of  the  candidate  selected,  it  is  suggested  that 
her  appointment  should  be  provisional.  In  giving  their 
approval  under  Article  9  {a)  of  persons  nominated  as 
Superintendents  of  Nursery  Schools,  the  Board  do  not  think 
it  advisable  at  the  present  stage  to  restrict  selection  to 
those  who  have  passed  any  particular  examinations  or 
tests.  But  they  will  require  to  be  satisfied  with  substantial 
evidence  that  the  candidate  chosen  is  well  fitted  by  educa- 
tion and  previous  experience  for  so  responsible  a  post. 

25.  Assistant  Staff. — ^The  assistant  staff  will,  it  is 
assumed,  be  composed  partly  of  women  possessing  nursing 
qualifications  who  will  be  employed  mainly  in  attending 
to  the  physical  welfare  of  the  children,  especially  the 
younger  children,  and  partly  of  women  who  possess 
qualifications  and  experience  for  the  training  and  teaching 
of  young  children.  The  Board  anticipate  that  after  the 
war  there  will  be  many  women  of  sufficient  general  educa- 
tion who  have  been  serving  temporarily  as  nurses  in 
hospitals,  day  nurseries  and  infant  welfare  centres,  or  as 
teachers  of  junior  and  infant  classes,  or  who  have  proved 
their  practical  capacity  in  other  forms  of  service,  who  will 
be  willing  to  undertake  work  in  Nursery  Schools.  The 
Board  hope  that  provision  ma}^  be  made  for  special  courses 
of  training  for  these  and  other  members  of  the  staff. 

A  suitably  qualified  nurse  should  usually  be  attached 
to  a  Nursery  School.  She  need  not  be  a  whole-time  officer, 
but  a  daily  visit  is  advisable,  in  order  that  minor  ailments, 
etc.,  may  be  referred  to  her.  One  nurse  might  thus  visit 
five  or  six  schools.  The  nurse  might  be  dispensed  with 
if  the  Superintendent  possessed  a  sufficient  knowledge  of 
children's  ailments  to  undertake  the  necessary  duties. 


APPENDIX  169 

26.  Probationers. — It  may  be  expected  that  some  young 
persons  under  the  age  of  eighteen  will  wish  to  take  up 
work  in  Nursery  Schools  with  the  object  of  fitting  them- 
selves for  permanent  employment  in  them,  or  occasionally 
for  emploj'ment  as  children's  nurses.  Probationers  should 
not  be  regarded  as  a  form  of  cheap  labour  ;  their  number 
should  be  limited  ;  adequate  provision  should  be  made 
for  their  training  and,  if  they  have  not  received  full  time 
education  up  to  the  age  of  sixteen,  for  any  necessary 
attendance  at  continuation  classes. 

27.  Until  further  experience  has  been  obtained,  the 
Board  do  not  think  it  desirable  to  attempt  to  prescribe 
a  precise  scale  of  staffing  for  Nursery  Schools.  They 
would  expect,  however,  that  a  Nursery  School  containing 
forty  to  fifty  children  would  require  the  services  of  a  super- 
intendent, an  experienced  assistant  and  a  probationer. 
The  number  suggested  would  appear  to  be  the  minimum, 
regard  being  had  to  the  special  care  and  attention  that 
it  will  be  necessary  to  give  to  children  for  whom  Nursery 
Schools  will  be  provided.  In  larger  schools  additional 
assistance  would  obviously  be  required. 

28.  Finally,  it  is  a  matter  of  the  first  importance  to 
facihtate  the  free  interchange  of  teachers  between  Nursery 
Schools  and  other  schools  ;  the  creation  of  a  separate 
caste  of  Nursery  School  teachers  would  be  a  matter  of 
regret  in  the  interests  of  the  teaching  profession.  The 
Board  have  no  doubt  that  Local  Education  Authorities 
and  Managers  will  bear  this  in  mind  when  considering  the 
staffing  of  Nursery  Schools,  and  will  encourage  persons 
in  their  employment  to  obtain,  if  they  do  not  already 
possess,  qualifications  for  work  in  elementary  and  other 
schools  and  departments  for  younger  children. 

29.  The  Relation  of  Nursery  Schools  to  other  Instittdions. 
— It  has  hitherto  been  assumed  for  purposes  of  convenient 
description  that  the  Nursery  School  or  class  will  be  a 
separate  institution.  Proposals  may,  however,  be  sub- 
mitted for  the  recognition  of  Nursery  Schools  or  classes 
which  form  part  of  other  organizations.  It  may,  for 
instance,  be  desired  to  establish  a  Nursery  School  in  the 


170        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

same  premises  as  a  day  nursery  or  an  infant  department 
of  a  public  elementary  school.  The  considerations  already 
mentioned  would  apply  generally  to  any  such  proposal, 
with  any  modifications  required  by  the  circumstances 
of  each  case.  In  the  case  of  association  with  a  day  nursery, 
for  instance,  where  the  premises  would  be  largely  used  in 
common,  special  importance  would  attach  to  the  selection 
of  a  suitable  person  as  superintendent  who  could  take 
charge  of  the  whole  institution.  The  Board  would  be 
unwilling  to  recognize  a  Nursery  School  attached  to  a 
day  nursery  unless  there  were  at  least  twenty  children 
of  two  years  old  and  upwards. 

30.  A  proposal  to  establish  a  Nursery  School  or  class 
in  the  premises  of  a  public  elementary  school  would  need 
careful  consideration,  and  it  should  generally  form  the 
subject  of  early  consultation  with  the  Board.  Some 
parts  of  the  premises,  such  as  the  hall  and  playground, 
might  be  used  jointly  ;  but  adaptation  of  existing  rooms 
to  the  use  of  a  Nursery  School  might  prove  difficult. 
Alteration  in  the  use  of  the  class-rooms,  unless  they 
naturally  form  a  separate  enclave,  might  prejudice  the 
work  both  of  the  Nursery  School  and  of  the  public  elemen- 
tary school.  The  midday  meal  should  be  regarded  as 
part  of  the  routine  of  the  Nursery  School,  and  arrange- 
ments should  be  made  for  the  children  separately  from  the 
provision  made  for  other  scholars  under  the  Education 
(Provision  of  Meals)  Act.  In  considering  a  proposal  to 
place  the  Nursery  School  under  the  general  supervision 
of  the  head  teacher  of  the  infants'  department,  the  Board 
would  have  regard  to  the  qualifications  of  the  teacher  as 
well  as  to  the  size  of  the  Nursery  School  and  the  infants' 
department.  Speaking  generally,  they  would  not  be 
disposed  to  approve  such  an  arrangement  if  there  were 
more  than  four  hundred  children  in  the  infants'  school 
or  more  than  forty  in  the  Nursery  School. 

31.  Grants-in-Aid  will  be  payable  for  Nursery  Schools 
conducted  in  accordance  with  the  regulations.  Provision 
is  being  made  in  other  Regulations  for  the  payment  of 
grants  to  Local  Education  Authorities  at  the  rate  of  one- 


APPENDIX  171 

half  of  their  net  expenditure  on  supplying  or  aiding  the 
supply  of  Nursery  Schools.  Article  13  of  these  Regulations 
provides  for  the  payment  of  grant  at  the  same  rate  for 
Nursery  Schools  provided  by  voluntary  managers.  The 
first  expenditure  taken  into  account  for  grant  will  be  that 
incurred  during  the  year  ending  March  31,  1919,  and 
grant  will  first  be  payable  during  the  year  commencing 
April  I,  1919. 

L.  A.  Selhy- Biggs 
31  December,  19 18 

BOARD  OF  EDUCATION 

Regulations  for  Nursery  Schools 

I. — {a)  A  Nursery  School  (which  expression  includes  a 
nursery  class)  for  the  purposes  of  these  Regulations  is  an 
institution  which  provides  for  the  care  and  training  during 
the  day  of  young  children  over  two  and  under  five  years  of 
age,  whose  attendance  at  such  a  school  is  necessary 
or  desirable  for  their  healthy  physical  and  mental 
development. 

(6)  Children  may  not  be  admitted  to  a  Nursery 
School  below  the  age  of  two  years  ;  they  may  not  be  re- 
tained beyond  the  end  of  the  term  in  which  they  attain 
the  age  of  five,  except  with  the  special  permission  of  the 
Board. 

2.  An  Authority  for  the  purpose  of  these  Regulations 
means  a  Local  Education  Authority  for  the  purposes  of 
Part  III  of  the  Education  Act,  1902. 

3.  If  a  School  is  not  provided  by  an  Authority  : 

{a)  The  Board  before  recognizing  it  will  consult  the 
Authority. 

{h)  It  must  be  conducted  by  responsible  Managers, 
and  provision  must  be  made  for  the  appoint- 
ment of  at  least  one-third  of  the  Managers  by 
the  Authority,  where  the  Authority  so  desire. 
A  person  must  be  appointed  to  act  as 
Correspondent  of  the  Managers. 


172        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

(c)  It  must  be  suitable  in  character  and  financial 
position  to  receive  aid  from  the  Board,  and 
must  not  be  conducted  for  private  profit  or 
be  farmed  out  to  any  member  of  the  staff  or 
other  person. 

{d)     It  must  be  open  to  inspection  by  the  Authority. 

4.  Before  recognizing  a  Nursery  School,  the  Board  will 
consider  its  suitability  in  relation  to  the  needs  of  the  area, 
its  accessibility  to  the  children's  homes,  and  the  co-ordina- 
tion of  its  work  with  the  medical  and  educational  services 
of  the  Authority, 

5.  The  site,  premises  and  equipment  must  be  approved 
by  the  Board  as  generally  suitable  for  the  purposes  of  a 
Nursery  School. 

6. — {a)  The  School  must  be  open  for  not  less  than  200 
days  in  the  year,  but  due  allowance  will  be  made  for  any 
period  of  closure  on  medical  grounds  or  for  any  other 
unavoidable  cause. 

[h)  The  times  of  opening  and  closing  must  be 
suitable. 

7.  Adequate  arrangements  must  be  made  for  attending 
to  the  health,  nourishment  and  physical  welfare  of  the 
children,  as  well  as  for  training  appropriate  to  their  age 
and  circumstances.  There  must  be  sufficient  opportunity 
for  rest,  meals  and  recreation. 

8.  Satisfactory  provision  must  be  made  for  medical 
inspection,  supervision  and  treatment,  and  for  the  preven- 
tion of  infectious  diseases. 

9. — (a)  A  Nursery  School  must  be  under  the  charge  of 
a  competent  Superintendent.  Her  appointment  must  be 
approved  beforehand  by  the  Board. 

{h)  The  subordinate  staff  must  be  suitable,  and 
sufficient  in  number  and  qualifications. 

(c)  The  salary  of  any  certificated  or  uncertificated 
teachers  employed  full-time  in  the  School  must  be  not 
less  than  the  minimum  salary  prescribed  by  the  Board  for 
teachers  of  those  grades  employed  in  public  elementary 
schools. 

10.     No  fees  shall  be  charged  or  other  charges  of  any 


APPENDIX  178 

kind  made  in  a  Nursery  School  except  for  food  or  medical 
treatment.  A  fee,  if  charged  for  these  purposes,  must  be 
reasonable  and  must  not  exceed  the  cost  of  the  food  or 
medical  treatment  provided. 

II. — {a)  The  school  must  be  open  at  all  reasonable 
times  to  inspection  by  the  Board. 

(b)  At  least  a  full  week's  notice  must  be  given  to 
the  Board's  Inspector  of  any  alteration  in  the  time  of 
meeting  of  the  school,  or  of  its  closure.  In  the  case  of 
closure  on  account  of  an  emergency,  notice  should  be  given 
by  telegram. 

12.  Such  records  must  be  kept  as  may  from  time  to 
time  be  required  by  the  Board,  and  any  returns  called  for 
by  the  Board  must  be  duly  furnished. 

13.  Where  a  school  is  not  provided  by  an  Authority  : 

(a)  Grant  will  be  payable  for  each  year  commencing 

1st  April  at  the  rate  of  one-half  of  the  expendi- 
ture in  that  year.  The  grant  will  be  payable 
after  the  end  of  the  year. 

(b)  In  determining  the  expenditure  on  which  grant  is 

payable  the  Board  will  reduce  the  gross  ex- 
penditure by  the  amount  of  any  fees  received 
and  by  the  amount  of  any  contributions  from 
an  Authority  ;  they  will  also  exclude  any  items 
of  expenditure  which,  in  their  opinion,  should 
not  be  taken  into  account  for  the  purposes  of 
grant. 

(c)  Application  for  the  payment  of  grant  must  be 

submitted  to  the  Board  through  the  Authority, 
together  with  an  audited  statement  of  accounts 
for  the  period  under  review, 
(i)  The  grant  payable  in  respect  of  a  school  which 
has  been  closed  t>v  which  ceases  to  be  recognized 
will  not,  as  a  rule,  exceed  the  amount  of  the 
outstanding  liabilities  at  the  date  on  which  the 
school  is  closed,  or  on  which  recognition  ceases. 

14.  The  payment  of  grant  and  the  continuance  of 
recognition  is  subject  to  the  fulfihnent  of  the  conditions 
laid  down  in  these  Regulations,  but  if  any  of  the  conditions 


174        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 

have  not  been  fulfilled  the  Board  may,  nevertheless,  where 
there  are  special  circumstances  which  would  justify  it,  pay 
such  grant  as  they  may  think  fit  instead  of  withdrawing 
recognition,  or  as  a  preliminary  to  so  doing. 

15.  If  any  question  arises  as  to  the  interpretation  of 
these  Regulations,  the  decision  of  the  Board  shall  be  final. 

16.  These  Regulations  come  into  force  as  from  ist 
April,  1918,  and  may  be  cited  as  "The  Regulations  for 
Nursery  Schools,  1919." 

Given  under  the  Seal  of  Office  of  the  Board  of  Education 
this  5th  day  of  March,  1919. 

(l.  S.)  L.   A.  Selhy-Bigge 

Secretary  to  the  Board  of  Education 


INDEX 


Adapted  houses,  139 
Age  classification,  49,  96 
Anger,  31.  44,  45 
Appetites,  The,  28 
Ardwick  Nursery  School,  139 
Art-appreciation,  89,  91 

Bathing,  102 
Bead-threading,  85 
Breathing  exercises,  104 
Brickbuilding,  83 
Bruises,  125 

Buildings,    Character     of,    141, 
142,  144 

Plans  of,   143,   144,  151 

Burns,  126 

Centres    of    interest,    i<y,    58, 

78,85 
Character,  Development  of,  47, 

48 
Chickenpox,  116 
Cloakrooms,   143,   147,    149 
Clothing,  103 

Cognition,  Development  of,  39 
Colds,  115 
Competition,  48 

Conation,    Development   of,    44 
Concepts,  Formation  of,  42 
Construction,  82-87 
Convention,  Influence  of,  52 
Co-operation  amongst  children, 

49 
Cottages  adapted,  139 
Creative  impulses,  23,  64,  75 
Cupboards,  147,  149 
Curiosity,  31,  43 
Cuts,  126 

Daily  exercise,  100 

routine,  56,  102 

V  Decoration  of  rooms,  148 
Diet,  106 
Diphtheria,  116 
Discipline,  36,  41,  62,  63 
Dog  bite,  128 
Dramatic  play,  62,  75-78 


Drawing,  S7-90 
Drever,  32 

Ear,   97,  98 

Emotions,  45,  46 

Exercise  and  imitation,  64,  66 

Eye,  97,  98 

Fear,  31 

Feeling,  Development  of,  45 

Finger-plays,  73,  74 

Fits,  127 

Food,  105 

Foreign  bodies,    127 

Formal  instruction,  25,  33,  49 

Free  play,  94,  99 

Fretfulness,  127 

Freud,  30,  35,  52 

Furniture,  14S-150 

Games,  72,  73,  99 

— . —  Dramatic,  75-78 

Garden,  The,  86,   100,   144,   145 

Habits,  44 

Hygienic,  103,  104 

Haemorrhage,  126 

Hand  work,  98,  99 

Heating,  142 

Heights        and        weights      of 

children.  Table  of,  109 
Home,     Relations    of  Nursery 

with,  19,  21 
Hospital  training,    130,    136 
Hot-water  supply,  146 
Hypermetropia,  97 

Imagination,  40-42 
Imitation,  50,  64,  65 
Infectious  disease,  95,  1 14-120 

Preventionof  spread  of,  120 

Instmcts,-3o,  31,  38 

Isolation    room,    100,    143,    150 

Jung,  34 

KiNEMATOGRAPJi,   Influence  of, 

88,  89 
Kitchen,  143,  147,  150 


175 


176        NURSERY  SCHOOL  EDUCATION 


Language,  42,  57,  92,  93 
Lavatories,  143,  144,  146,  147 
Love,  Sentiment  of,  46,  48 

McDouGALL,  30,  31,  32 
Measles,  117 

German,  118 

Medical  inspection,  108 

consultation,  109,  11 1 

Mental  environment,  22 
Modelling,  90 
Montessori,  39,  66-68,  81 
Morning  circle,  57 
Mumps.  118 
Muscular  movement,  99 
Musical  expression,  92 
Myopia,  97 

Nature,  23,  59 
Nervous  strain,  no,  127 
Number  interests,  86 
Nursery  rhymes,  60,  61,  72 

Occupations,  58,  82-91 
Open-air    buildings,     10 1,    141, 

142 
Over-stimulation,  Danger  of,  33 

Parasitic  diseases,  122 
Parks,    Use   of,    145 
Pets,  Keeping  of,  59 
Physical    development,   22,   96, 

99 
Pictures,  57,  149 
Playrooms,  143,  147,  149 
Play-spirit,  24 
Poise  of  body,  72 
Practical  activities,   29,   73,   93 
Pseudo-instincts,  31 
Purpose  in  constructive   plays, 

85 

Reasoning,   Beginnings  of,   43 
Receiving  of  children,  115 
Receiving-room,  143,  146,  148 
Religious  influences,  48,  56,  61, 

62 
Repression,  Danger  of,  33,  52 
Rest,  98,  107 
room,  143 


Rhythm,  Training  in,  70 
Roof-garden,  145 
Rooms,  size  of,  loi 
Rusholme  Nursery,  140 

Sand-play,  84 
Scarlet  fever,  no 
Self-assertion,  31,  50 
Sense  development,  97 

training,  39,  66-68 

Sentiments,  46,  47 

Sexual  appetite,  30,  32 

Shand,  47 

Site  of  Nursery,  141 

Size  of  Nursery  School,  21 

Smallpox,  116 

Sores,  115 

Stafi,  Duties  of,  136 

rooms,  143,  150 

Self-knowledge,  51 
Sleep,  107 

Sleeping-room,  143,  147,  150 
Social  relationships,  24 

service,  93 

Speech  habits,  42,  44,  68,  98,  99 
Sprains,  126 
Squint,  98 
Stammering,  99 
Stings,  128 
Stories,  58,  60-62 
Superintendents,     Training    of, 
129,  135-138 

Duties  of,  131,  133,  134 

Prospects  of,  138 

Teeth,  Care  of,  104 
Temperature  of  rooms,  100 
Tests  of   progress,    25 
Tools,  86 

Town-planning  schemes,   145 
Toys,  7S-82 
Trotter,  36 
Typhoid  fever,  119 

Voluntary  action,  45 

Washing  basins,  146 

Weights        and       heights       of 

children.  Table  of,  109 
Whooping  cough,  119,  120 


Printed  in  Great  Britain  by  Jarrold  cS-  Sons,  Ltd.,  Norwich. 


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